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Open access

Skin and bones: systemic mastocytosis and bone

Mawson Wang and Markus J Seibel

Summary

We report the case of a 69-year-old female with systemic mastocytosis, diagnosed based on widespread pigmented papules and macules, elevated serum tryptase levels and confirmatory skin and bone marrow biopsy, on a background of osteoporosis. A CT demonstrated multiple sclerotic lesions within lumbar vertebral bodies, sacrum and ileum, with surrounding osteolysis but no obvious compression fractures. She was treated with the RANK-L inhibitor denosumab, resulting in significant bone mineral density gain over the following 5 years. However, her serum tryptase levels gradually increased during this period despite treatment with the multikinase inhibitor, midostaurin. It is thus conceivable that her rapid increase in bone mineral density may be partly contributed by a predominance of pro-osteoblastic mediators released by abnormal mast cells, suggestive of more advanced disease. This case highlights the complexities of systemic mastocytosis-related bone disease and the interplay of numerous mediators contributing to a phenotype of both increased bone resorption and formation.

Learning points

  • Systemic mastocytosis is a neoplastic disease of mast cells characterized by abnormal proliferation and accumulation in the skin and other organs. It is most frequently associated with the somatic gain-of-function KIT D816V mutation.

  • Systemic mastocytosis should be suspected in patients presenting with not only cutaneous symptoms suggestive of mast cell degranulation such as anaphylaxis, flushing or urticaria but also unexplained osteoporosis and gastrointestinal and constitutional symptoms.

  • The prevalence of osteoporosis in systemic mastocytosis is high. Mast cell activation leads to the secretion of numerous chemical mediators which either promote or inhibit osteoclastic and/or osteoblastic activity, with the balance usually in favour of increased bone resorption. However, in advanced diseases with high mast cell burden, mast-cell-derived cytokines and mediators may promote osteoblastic activity, leading to osteosclerosis and apparent increases in bone mineral density.

  • Treatment of osteoporosis in systemic mastocytosis involves antiresorptive therapy with bisphosphonates and more recently, denosumab. There are limited data on the role of osteoanabolic agents.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0408
Volume 2023: Issue 2
Open access

Live birth using autologous sperm cryopreserved for 26 years

Sue Sleiman, Feyrous Bacha, and David J Handelsman

Summary

We report the successful delivery of a healthy baby after intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) with frozen-thawed autologous sperm, cryostored for 26 years, the longest successful autologous sperm cryostorage reported. Sperm was cryostored for a 15-year-old boy at the time of his cancer diagnosis. Semen samples were frozen with cryoprotectant, using a graduated vapour-phase nitrogen protocol. Straws were stored in a large vapour-phase nitrogen tank until transfer for use. The couple underwent a single ICSI–in vitro fertilisation procedure using the frozen-thawed sperm with a transfer of five fertilised embryos, resulting in the live birth of a healthy baby boy. This reinforces the importance of offering sperm cryopreservation to men who have not completed their family prior to gonadotoxic treatment for cancer or other diseases. As practical, low-cost fertility insurance, it should be offered to any young man who can collect semen and it provides essentially unlimited duration of fertility preservation.

Learning points

  • Gonadotoxic chemo or radiotherapy treatment for cancer or other diseases usually causes temporary or permanent male infertility.

  • Sperm cryostorage serves as a practical, low-cost insurance to facilitate future paternity.

  • All men who have not completed their families and are scheduled for gonadotoxic treatments should be offered sperm cryostorage.

  • There is no lower age limit for young men who can collect semen.

  • Sperm cryostorage offers essentially indefinite duration for the preservation of male fertility.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0402
Volume 2023: Issue 2
Open access

Olanzapine-induced multifactorial chylomicronaemia syndrome: a rare but important complication

Bridget Cooper, Kenrick Blaker, and Jerry R Greenfield

Summary

We present a case of a 42-year-old man who developed acute onset severe hypertriglyceridaemia within days of commencing olanzapine therapy. Despite having a family history of metabolic syndrome, he had no personal history of hyperlipidaemia and had normal fasting lipids 1 week prior to treatment initiation. His case is consistent with a diagnosis of multifactorial chylomicronaemia syndrome with a possible undiagnosed underlying genetic lipid metabolism disorder. Our case highlights the difficulty in identifying patients at risk of severe hypertriglyceridaemia prior to the commencement of olanzapine.

Learning points

  • Atypical antipsychotic medications, in particular olanzapine and clozapine, are associated with metabolic side effects.

  • Olanzapine can precipitate acute onset severe hypertriglyceridaemia consistent with multifactorial chylomicronaemia syndrome.

  • It is difficult to predict individuals at risk of olanzapine-induced hypertriglyceridaemia.

  • This case demonstrates the importance of metabolic screening prior to the commencement of olanzapine and the possibility of repeating fasting serum lipids soon thereafter.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0225
Volume 2023: Issue 1
Open access

Aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage in the pituitary fossa of a patient with acromegaly – a rare phenomenon

Prishila Fookeerah and Mark McLean

Summary

The anatomy of the pituitary fossa is complex. The wall of the fossa can vary, resulting in inconsistencies in the nature and integrity of the sella barrier. Cerebrospinal fluid is generally confined to the subarachnoid space and does not circulate freely in the pituitary fossa. Spontaneous haemorrhage in the fossa typically occurs in the context of pre-existing intrasellar pathology such as a pituitary adenoma. Extravasation of blood into the subarachnoid space can rarely be observed following pituitary apoplexy. We describe the unique occurrence of subarachnoid haemorrhage in a largely empty pituitary fossa after the rupture of a cerebral aneurysm.

Learning points

  • Pituitary apoplexy and subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) are both high in the differential diagnosis of sudden onset severe headaches.

  • Haemorrhagic pituitary apoplexy may result in extravasation into the subarachnoid space, resulting in typical SAH symptoms and signs.

  • This is the first reported case of primary SAH resulting in blood pooling in an empty sella arising from previous surgical resection of a large macroadenoma.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0363
Volume 2023: Issue 1
Open access

Dose-dependent response to long-term clomiphene citrate in male functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism

Beryl Lin and Stephen M Twigg

Summary

Functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is a relatively common condition in middle-aged to elderly men that can significantly impair quality of life. Besides lifestyle optimisation, androgen replacement remains the mainstay of treatment; however, its adverse effects on spermatogenesis and testicular atrophy are undesirable. Clomiphene citrate is a selective oestrogen receptor modulator that acts centrally to increase endogenous testosterone without affecting fertility. Although it has demonstrated effectiveness in shorter-duration studies, its longer-term outcomes are less well-documented. In this study, we report the case of a 42-year-old male with functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism who sustained an excellent dose-dependent, titratable clinical and biochemical response to clomiphene citrate with no known adverse effects for 7 years to date. This case highlights that clomiphene citrate has potential as a safe and titratable longer-term treatment option, and the need for further randomised control trials in therapy options to normalise androgen status.

Learning points

  • Functional hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is a relatively common, but likely underdiagnosed, condition in middle-aged to older males.

  • Testosterone replacement is the current mainstay of endocrine therapy but can cause sub-fertility and testicular atrophy.

  • Clomiphene citrate is a serum oestrogen receptor modulator that acts centrally to increase endogenous testosterone production without affecting fertility.

  • It has potential as a safe and efficacious longer-term treatment option that can be titrated to increase testosterone and relieve clinical symptoms in a dose-dependent manner.

  • Longitudinal prospective studies as randomised control trials evaluating alternatives to exogenous testosterone are required.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0242
Volume 2023: Issue 1
Open access

Ectopic adrenocorticotrophic hormone syndrome secondary to treatment-related neuroendocrine differentiation of metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer

Chelsea Tan and Jessica Triay

Summary

A 64-year-old man with progressive metastatic castrate-resistant prostate adenocarcinoma presented with recurrent fluid overload, severe hypokalaemia with metabolic alkalosis and loss of glycaemic control. Clinical features were facial plethora, skin bruising and proximal myopathy. Plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), serum cortisol and 24-h urinary cortisol levels were elevated. Low-dose dexamethasone failed to suppress cortisol. Pituitary MRI was normal and 68Gallium-DOTATATE PET–CT scan showed only features of metastatic prostate cancer. He was diagnosed with ectopic ACTH syndrome secondary to treatment-related neuroendocrine prostate cancer differentiation. Medical management was limited by clinical deterioration, accessibility of medications and cancer progression. Ketoconazole and cabergoline were utilised, but cortisol remained uncontrolled. He succumbed 5 months following diagnosis. Treatment-related neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate adenocarcinoma is a rare cause of ectopic ACTH syndrome.

Learning points

  • Neuroendocrine differentiation following prostate adenocarcinoma treatment with androgen deprivation has been described.

  • Ectopic adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) syndrome should be considered where patients with metastatic prostate cancer develop acute electrolyte disturbance or fluid overload.

  • Ketoconazole interferes with adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis and can be used in ectopic ACTH syndrome, but the impact may be insufficient. Inhibition of gonadal steroidogenesis is favourable in prostate cancer.

  • More data are required to evaluate the use of cabergoline in ectopic ACTH syndrome.

  • Ectopic ACTH syndrome requires prompt management and is challenging in the face of metastatic cancer.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0347
Volume 2023: Issue 1
Open access

Hypercalcaemia secondary to hypophysitis and cortisol deficiency: another immunotherapy-related adverse event

Samuel R Miller, Shejil Kumar, Alexander Yuile, and Alexander M Menzies

Summary

Hypercalcaemia is a common complication seen in malignancy, frequently due to paraneoplastic parathyroid hormone-related peptide production or osteolytic bony metastases. We present a 58-year-old female with immunotherapy-mediated hypophysitis causing secondary cortisol deficiency resulting in severe glucocorticoid-responsive hypercalcaemia. Whilst hypophysitis is a well recognised adverse event in those receiving immunotherapy for advanced malignancy, it does not typically present with hypercalcaemia. The mechanism responsible for hypercalcaemia due to hypocortisolaemia has not been fully elucidated although hypotheses include the effects of volume depletion and thyroxine’s action on bone. Prompt treatment with glucocorticoids caused an improvement in the patient’s symptoms and corrected her hypercalcaemia which later returned after an attempted glucocorticoid wean. With the increasing uptake of immunotherapy, clinicians should be aware of this unusual presentation of immunotherapy-related hypophysitis and secondary hypocortisolaemia which can be life-threatening if the diagnosis is delayed.

Learning points

  • Immunotherapy can cause inflammation of the pituitary gland resulting in secondary hypocortisolaemia, which can, though rarely, present as hypercalcaemia.

  • Secondary hypocortisolaemia requires prompt recognition and treatment with glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoid replacement leads to rapid clinical and biochemical improvement in these patients.

  • The differential diagnosis for glucocorticoid-responsive hypercalcaemia extends beyond granulomatous disorders (e.g. sarcoidosis, tuberculosis) to adrenocorticotrophic hormone and cortisol deficiency, particularly in patients receiving immunotherapy.

  • Hypocortisolaemia can lead to hypercalcaemia through various proposed mechanisms. Low serum glucocorticoids are associated with reduced blood volume, thus reducing renal calcium excretion. In addition, without glucocorticoid’s inhibitory action, thyroxine appears to drive calcium mobilisation from bone.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0375
Volume 2023: Issue 1
Open access

Acute presentation of immunotherapy-related diabetes mellitus without ketoacidosis, low C-peptide or elevated HbA1c

Cun An Phang, Shejil Kumar, and Peter Rohl

Summary

The rapid rise in the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors as systemic cancer therapy has seen the emergence of immunotherapy-induced diabetes, a severe irreversible immunotherapy-related adverse event. Affected patients typically present with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and low C-peptide consistent with insulin deficiency secondary to autoimmune β-cell destruction. We present the unusual case of a 61-year-old female with metastatic ampullary duodenal adenocarcinoma with primary tumour adjacent to the pancreatic head. She was commenced on immunotherapy after conventional systemic chemotherapy. Acute-onset hyperglycaemia was detected after 7 weeks on weekly blood glucose monitoring, with no glucocorticoid use or prior history of diabetes. On presentation, there was no evidence of DKA, and her glycated haemoglobin level was within the normal non-diabetic range at 5.3%, reflecting the acuity of her presentation. Initial serum C-peptide was preserved; however, it became undetectable a few weeks later, confirming insulin deficiency. We describe a case of atypical presentation of immunotherapy-induced diabetes, review the existing literature on this emerging clinical entity and discuss the differential diagnosis for new-onset diabetes mellitus in patients with metastatic cancer.

Learning points

  • Regular proactive glycaemic monitoring in patients receiving immunotherapy, particularly antibodies against programmed death ligand 1 and PD1, can facilitate very early detection of immunotherapy-induced diabetes, prompting insulin commencement and avoiding life-threatening presentations of diabetic ketoacidosis.

  • Glycated haemoglobin can be within the normal range in patients diagnosed acutely with immunotherapy-induced diabetes.

  • Serum C-peptide can be preserved initially in patients diagnosed with immunotherapy-induced diabetes but is likely to become undetectable during their illness.

  • New-onset diabetes in patients with metastatic cancer carries a broad differential diagnosis.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0291
Volume 2022: Issue 1
Open access

Rare distant metastases to pancreas, liver, and lung as initial presentation of mixed tall cell and columnar cell variants of papillary thyroid cancer

Cody Harper, James Michael, Tarek Rahmeh, and Vicki Munro

Summary

The most common sites of distant metastases of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) are lung and bone. Widespread distant metastases of PTC are rare and associated with poor overall prognosis. Metastases to sites such as liver and pancreas are extremely rare, and literature is sparse on overall survival. In this report, we present a 57-year-old man whose initial presentation of PTC was with pancreatic, liver, and lung metastases, and subsequently developed metastases to bone and brain. He underwent a total thyroidectomy, neck dissection, and tracheal resection. Pathology revealed a predominant columnar cell variant PTC with focal areas of tall cell variant, and genomic sequencing showed both PIK3CA and BRAF gene mutations. Radioactive iodine ablation with I-131 did not show any uptake in metastatic sites and he had progression of the metastases within 6 months. Therefore, therapy with lenvatinib was initiated for radioactive iodine refractory disease. Our patient has tolerated the lenvatinib well, and all his sites of metastases decreased in size. His liver and pancreatic lesions took longer to respond but showed response 6 months after initiation of lenvatinib, and he remains on full dose lenvatinib 18 months into treatment.

Learning points

  • Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) usually metastasizes to lung and bone but can rarely occur in many other sites.

  • Patients with distant metastases have significantly worse long-term prognosis.

  • Lenvatinib can be an effective treatment of radioactive iodine refractory PTC with rare sites of distant metastases.

  • Lenvatinib can be an effective treatment of PTC with BRAF V600E and PIK3CA mutation.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0307
Volume 2022: Issue 1
Open access

Treating ‘osteoporosis’: a near miss in an unusual case of FGF-23-mediated hypophosphataemic osteomalacia

Mike Lin and Kirtan Ganda

Summary

We present the case of a 60-year-old female who developed repeated atraumatic stress fractures. She was initially diagnosed with osteoporosis based on her dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan bone mineral density (BMD) T-scores and started on denosumab therapy. Secondary osteoporosis screen revealed abnormal myeloma screen and low serum phosphate levels. It was thought that the patient had multiple myeloma with associated Fanconi-related tubular dysfunction. However, fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) levels were grossly elevated, making Fanconi syndrome unlikely. The patient was subsequently diagnosed with two separate conditions, namely cardiac amyloid light-chain (AL) amyloidosis and FGF-23-related hypophosphataemia, likely due to tumour-induced osteomalacia. This case highlights the importance of excluding osteomalacia as a cause of low BMD and checking FGF-23 levels in the workup for hypophosphataemia.

Learning Points

  • Tumour-induced osteomalacia is a difficult diagnosis as the tumour is often small and slow growing. Imaging may fail to identify a tumour, and treatment therefore consists of calcitriol and phosphate replacement.

  • Tumour-induced osteomalacia should be suspected in the adult presenting with new-onset hypophosphataemia, elevated FGF-23 levels and isolated renal phosphate wasting.

  • Serum phosphate is not part of the routine chemistry panels. Routinely checking phosphate levels prior to initiating antiresorptive therapy is warranted.

  • DXA cannot distinguish low bone mineral density due to osteoporosis from osteomalacia. Antiresorptive therapy should be avoided in osteomalacia due to the risk of clinical and radiographic deterioration.

DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1530/EDM-22-0300
Volume 2022: Issue 1