Clinical Overview > Condition/ Syndrome > Hyperkalaemia

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Isabella Lupi Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Alessandro Brancatella Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Mirco Cosottini Neuroradiology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Nicola Viola Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Giulia Lanzolla Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Daniele Sgrò Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Giulia Di Dalmazi Section of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, Ce.S.I-Me.T., “G.D’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy

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Francesco Latrofa Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Patrizio Caturegli Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Maryland, USA

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Claudio Marcocci Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Summary

Programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death protein ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4/B7 (CTLA-4/B7) pathways are key regulators in T-cell activation and tolerance. Nivolumab, pembrolizumab (PD-1 inhibitors), atezolizumab (PD-L1 inhibitor) and ipilimumab (CTLA-4 inhibitor) are monoclonal antibodies approved for treatment of several advanced cancers. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs)-related hypophysitis is described more frequently in patients treated with anti-CTLA-4; however, recent studies reported an increasing prevalence of anti-PD-1/PD-L1-induced hypophysitis which also exhibits slightly different clinical features. We report our experience on hypophysitis induced by anti-PD-1/anti-PD-L1 treatment. We present four cases, diagnosed in the past 12 months, of hypophysitis occurring in two patients receiving anti-PD-1, in one patient receiving anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 combined therapy and in one patient receiving anti-PD-L1. In this case series, timing, clinical presentation and association with other immune-related adverse events appeared to be extremely variable; central hypoadrenalism and hyponatremia were constantly detected although sellar magnetic resonance imaging did not reveal specific signs of pituitary inflammation. These differences highlight the complexity of ICI-related hypophysitis and the existence of different mechanisms of action leading to heterogeneity of clinical presentation in patients receiving immunotherapy.

Learning points:

  • PD-1/PD-L1 blockade can induce hypophysitis with a different clinical presentation when compared to CTLA-4 blockade.

  • Diagnosis of PD-1/PD-L1 induced hypophysitis is mainly made on clinical grounds and sellar MRI does not show radiological abnormalities.

  • Hyponatremia due to acute secondary adrenal insufficiency is often the principal sign of PD-1/PD-L1-induced hypophysitis and can be masked by other symptoms due to oncologic disease.

  • PD-1/PD-L1-induced hypophysitis can present as an isolated manifestation of irAEs or be in association with other autoimmune diseases

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Jose León Mengíbar Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Ismael Capel Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Teresa Bonfill Medical Oncology Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Isabel Mazarico Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Laia Casamitjana Espuña Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Assumpta Caixàs Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Mercedes Rigla Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Parc Taulí University Hospital, Sabadell, Barcelona, Spain

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Summary

Durvalumab, a human immunoglobulin G1 kappa monoclonal antibody that blocks the interaction of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) with the PD-1 and CD80 (B7.1) molecules, is increasingly used in advanced neoplasias. Durvalumab use is associated with increased immune-related adverse events. We report a case of a 55-year-old man who presented to our emergency room with hyperglycaemia after receiving durvalumab for urothelial high-grade non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer. On presentation, he had polyuria, polyphagia, nausea and vomiting, and laboratory test revealed diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Other than durvalumab, no precipitating factors were identified. Pre-durvalumab blood glucose was normal. The patient responded to treatment with intravenous fluids, insulin and electrolyte replacement. Simultaneously, he presented a thyroid hormone pattern that evolved in 10 weeks from subclinical hyperthyroidism (initially attributed to iodinated contrast used in a previous computerised tomography) to overt hyperthyroidism and then to severe primary hypothyroidism (TSH: 34.40 µU/mL, free thyroxine (FT4): <0.23 ng/dL and free tri-iodothyronine (FT3): 0.57 pg/mL). Replacement therapy with levothyroxine was initiated. Finally, he was tested positive for anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65), anti-thyroglobulin (Tg) and antithyroid peroxidase (TPO) antibodies (Abs) and diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) and silent thyroiditis caused by durvalumab. When durvalumab was stopped, he maintained the treatment of multiple daily insulin doses and levothyroxine. Clinicians need to be alerted about the development of endocrinopathies, such as DM, DKA and primary hypothyroidism in the patients receiving durvalumab.

Learning points:

  • Patients treated with anti-PD-L1 should be screened for the most common immune-related adverse events (irAEs).

  • Glucose levels and thyroid function should be monitored before and during the treatment.

  • Durvalumab is mainly associated with thyroid and endocrine pancreas dysfunction.

  • In the patients with significant autoimmune background, risk–benefit balance of antineoplastic immunotherapy should be accurately assessed.

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Benedetta Zampetti Endocrinology Niguarda Hospital, Galeazzi Institute IRCCS, Milan, Italy

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Roberto Attanasio Endocrinology, Galeazzi Institute IRCCS, Milan, Italy

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Renato Cozzi Endocrinology Niguarda Hospital, Galeazzi Institute IRCCS, Milan, Italy

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Summary

A 69-year-old male was admitted for severe hyponatremia disclosed after an accidental fall. He was anticoagulated from 2 months after the implantation of a biologic aortic valve prosthesis. The work-up disclosed adrenal failure and MRI showed bilateral adrenal hemorrhage. Clinical picture and lab parameters normalized quickly after the appropriate replacement treatment. Anticoagulation excess should be added to the list of drugs potentially causing hyponatremia.

Learning points:

  • Hyponatremia requires a complete and timely workup in order to start an appropriate treatment for the improvement of clinical conditions.

  • History is crucial: a detailed list of drugs potentially causing hyponatremia should be collected. Anticoagulants should be added to the list, mostly in the event of excessive anticoagulation.

  • Intra-adrenal hemorrhage is a rare cause of hyponatremia and adrenal failure.

  • The ACTH test is still the gold standard for the diagnosis of hypoadrenalism.

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Su Ann Tee Department of Endocrinology, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

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Earn Hui Gan Department of Endocrinology, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

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Mohamad Zaher Kanaan Departments of Ophthalmology, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

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David Ashley Price Departments of Infectious Disease and Tropical Medicine, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

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Tim Hoare Radiology, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

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Simon H S Pearce Department of Endocrinology, Newcastle Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK

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Summary

Primary adrenal insufficiency secondary to syphilis is extremely rare, with only five cases being reported in the literature. We report a case of adrenal insufficiency as a manifestation of Treponema pallidum infection (tertiary syphilis). A 69-year-old, previously fit and well Caucasian male was found to have adrenal insufficiency after being admitted with weight loss, anorexia and postural dizziness resulting in a fall. Biochemical testing showed hyponatraemia, hyperkalaemia, and an inadequate response to Synacthen testing, with a peak cortisol level of 302 nmol/L after administration of 250 µg Synacthen. Abdominal imaging revealed bilateral adrenal hyperplasia with inguinal and retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy. He was started on hydrocortisone replacement; however, it was not until he re-attended ophthalmology with a red eye and visual loss 1 month later, that further work-up revealed the diagnosis of tertiary syphilis. Following a course of penicillin, repeat imaging 5 months later showed resolution of the abnormal radiological appearances. However, adrenal function has not recovered and 3 years following initial presentation, the patient remains on both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement. In conclusion, this case highlights the importance of considering syphilis as a potential differential diagnosis in patients presenting with adrenal insufficiency and bilateral adrenal masses, given the recent re-emergence of this condition. The relative ease of treating infectious causes of adrenal lesions makes accurate and timely diagnosis crucial.

Learning points:

  • Infectious causes, including syphilis, should be excluded before considering adrenalectomy or biopsy for any patient presenting with an adrenal mass.

  • It is important to perform a full infection screen including tests for human immunodeficiency virus, other blood-borne viruses and concurrent sexually transmitted diseases in patients presenting with bilateral adrenal hyperplasia with primary adrenal insufficiency.

  • Awareness of syphilis as a potential differential diagnosis is important, as it not only has a wide range of clinical presentations, but its prevalence has been increasing in recent times.

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Ali A Zaied Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA

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Halis K Akturk Divisions of Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA

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Richard W Joseph Divisions of Hematology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA

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Augustine S Lee Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA

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Summary

Nivolumab, a monoclonal antibody against programmed cell death-1 receptor, is increasingly used in advanced cancers. While nivolumab use enhances cancer therapy, it is associated with increased immune-related adverse events. We describe an elderly man who presented in ketoacidosis after receiving nivolumab for metastatic renal cell carcinoma. On presentation, he was hyperpneic and laboratory analyses showed hyperglycemia and anion-gapped metabolic acidosis consistent with diabetic ketoacidosis. No other precipitating factors, besides nivolumab, were identified. Pre-nivolumab blood glucose levels were normal. The patient responded to treatment with intravenous fluids, insulin and electrolyte replacement. He was diagnosed with insulin-dependent autoimmune diabetes mellitus secondary to nivolumab. Although nivolumab was stopped, he continued to require multiple insulin injection therapy till his last follow-up 7 months after presentation. Clinicians need to be alerted to the development of diabetes mellitus and diabetic ketoacidosis in patients receiving nivolumab.

Learning points:

  • Diabetic ketoacidosis should be considered in the differential of patients presenting with metabolic acidosis following treatment with antibodies to programmed cell death-1 receptor (anti-PD-1).

  • Autoimmune islet cell damage is the presumed mechanism for how insulin requiring diabetes mellitus can develop de novo following administration of anti-PD-1.

  • Because anti-PD-1 works by the activation of T-cells and reduction of ‘self-tolerance’, other autoimmune disorders are likely to be increasingly recognized with increased use of these agents.

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Nicholas R Zessis Pediatrics and Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

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Jennifer L Nicholas Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

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Stephen I Stone Pediatrics and Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

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Summary

Bilateral adrenal hemorrhages rarely occur during the neonatal period and are often associated with traumatic vaginal deliveries. However, the adrenal gland has highly regenerative capabilities and adrenal insufficiency typically resolves over time. We evaluated a newborn female after experiencing fetal macrosomia and a traumatic vaginal delivery. She developed acidosis and acute renal injury. Large adrenal hemorrhages were noted bilaterally on ultrasound, and she was diagnosed with adrenal insufficiency based on characteristic electrolyte changes and a low cortisol (4.2 µg/dL). On follow-up testing, this patient was unable to be weaned off of hydrocortisone or fludrocortisone despite resolution of hemorrhages on ultrasound. Providers should consider bilateral adrenal hemorrhage when evaluating critically ill neonates after a traumatic delivery. In extreme cases, this may be a persistent process.

Learning points:

  • Risk factors for adrenal hemorrhage include fetal macrosomia, traumatic vaginal delivery and critical acidemia.

  • Signs of adrenal hemorrhage include jaundice, flank mass, skin discoloration or scrotal hematoma.

  • Adrenal insufficiency often is a transient process when related to adrenal hemorrhage.

  • Severe adrenal hemorrhages can occur in the absence of symptoms.

  • Though rare, persistent adrenal insufficiency may occur in extremely severe cases of bilateral adrenal hemorrhage.

  • Consider adrenal hemorrhage when evaluating a neonate for shock in the absence of an infectious etiology.

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Ken Takeshima First Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Hiroyuki Ariyasu First Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Tatsuya Ishibashi First Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Shintaro Kawai First Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Shinsuke Uraki First Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Jinsoo Koh Department of Neurology, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Hidefumi Ito Department of Neurology, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Takashi Akamizu First Department of Internal Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama,, Japan

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Summary

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is an autosomal dominant multisystem disease affecting muscles, the eyes and the endocrine organs. Diabetes mellitus and primary hypogonadism are endocrine manifestations typically seen in patients with DM1. Abnormalities of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis have also been reported in some DM1 patients. We present a case of DM1 with a rare combination of multiple endocrinopathies; diabetes mellitus, a combined form of primary and secondary hypogonadism, and dysfunction of the HPA axis. In the present case, diabetes mellitus was characterized by severe insulin resistance with hyperinsulinemia. Glycemic control improved after modification of insulin sensitizers, such as metformin and pioglitazone. Hypogonadism was treated with testosterone replacement therapy. Notably, body composition analysis revealed increase in muscle mass and decrease in fat mass in our patient. This implies that manifestations of hypogonadism could be hidden by symptoms of myotonic dystrophy. Our patient had no symptoms associated with adrenal deficiency, so adrenal dysfunction was carefully followed up without hydrocortisone replacement therapy. In this report, we highlight the necessity for evaluation and treatment of multiple endocrinopathies in patients with DM1.

Learning points:

  • DM1 patients could be affected by a variety of multiple endocrinopathies.

  • Our patients with DM1 presented rare combinations of multiple endocrinopathies; diabetes mellitus, combined form of primary and secondary hypogonadism and dysfunction of HPA axis.

  • Testosterone treatment of hypogonadism in patients with DM1 could improve body composition.

  • The patients with DM1 should be assessed endocrine functions and treated depending on the degree of each endocrine dysfunction.

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Hodaka Yamada Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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Shunsuke Funazaki Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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Masafumi Kakei Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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Kazuo Hara Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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San-e Ishikawa Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, International University of Health and Welfare Hospital, Nasushiobara, Japan

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Summary

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a critical complication of type 1 diabetes associated with water and electrolyte disorders. Here, we report a case of DKA with extreme hyperkalemia (9.0 mEq/L) in a patient with type 1 diabetes on hemodialysis. He had a left frontal cerebral infarction resulting in inability to manage his continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion pump. Electrocardiography showed typical changes of hyperkalemia, including absent P waves, prolonged QRS interval and tented T waves. There was no evidence of total body water deficit. After starting insulin and rapid hemodialysis, the serum potassium level was normalized. Although DKA may present with hypokalemia, rapid hemodialysis may be necessary to resolve severe hyperkalemia in a patient with renal failure.

Learning points:

  • Patients with type 1 diabetes on hemodialysis may develop ketoacidosis because of discontinuation of insulin treatment.

  • Patients on hemodialysis who develop ketoacidosis may have hyperkalemia because of anuria.

  • Absolute insulin deficit alters potassium distribution between the intracellular and extracellular space, and anuria abolishes urinary excretion of potassium.

  • Rapid hemodialysis along with intensive insulin therapy can improve hyperkalemia, while fluid infusions may worsen heart failure in patients with ketoacidosis who routinely require hemodialysis.

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Yael R Nobel Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, USA

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Maya B Lodish Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Margarita Raygada Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Jaydira Del Rivero Medical Oncology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, 10 Center Drive, Building 10, Room 12N-226, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA

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Fabio R Faucz Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Smita B Abraham Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Charalampos Lyssikatos Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Elena Belyavskaya Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Constantine A Stratakis Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Mihail Zilbermint Section on Endocrinology and Genetics, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, BG 10-CRC, Room 1-3216, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Baltimore, Maryland, 21287, USA
Suburban Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland, 20814, USA

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Summary

Autosomal recessive pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA1) is a rare disorder characterized by sodium wasting, failure to thrive, hyperkalemia, hypovolemia and metabolic acidosis. It is due to mutations in the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and is characterized by diminished response to aldosterone. Patients may present with life-threatening hyperkalemia, which must be recognized and appropriately treated. A 32-year-old female was referred to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for evaluation of hyperkalemia and muscle pain. Her condition started in the second week of life, when she was brought to an outside hospital lethargic and unresponsive. At that time, she was hypovolemic, hyperkalemic and acidotic, and was eventually treated with sodium bicarbonate and potassium chelation. At the time of the presentation to the NIH, her laboratory evaluation revealed serum potassium 5.1 mmol/l (reference range: 3.4–5.1 mmol/l), aldosterone 2800 ng/dl (reference range: ≤21 ng/dl) and plasma renin activity 90 ng/ml/h (reference range: 0.6–4.3 ng/ml per h). Diagnosis of PHA1 was suspected. Sequencing of the SCNN1B gene, which codes for ENaC, revealed that the patient is a compound heterozygote for two novel variants (c.1288delC and c.1466+1 G>A), confirming the suspected diagnosis of PHA1. In conclusion, we report a patient with novel variants of the SCNN1B gene causing PHA1 with persistent, symptomatic hyperkalemia.

Learning points

  • PHA1 is a rare genetic condition, causing functional abnormalities of the amiloride-sensitive ENaC.

  • PHA1 was caused by previously unreported SCNN1B gene mutations (c.1288delC and c.1466+1 G>A).

  • Early recognition of this condition and adherence to symptomatic therapy is important, as the electrolyte abnormalities found may lead to severe dehydration, cardiac arrhythmias and even death.

  • High doses of sodium polystyrene sulfonate, sodium chloride and sodium bicarbonate are required for symptomatic treatment.

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Sudeep K Rajpoot College of Medicine, American University of Antigua, Antigua

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Carlos Maggi Pediatric Intensive Care, Miller Children's Hospital, Long Beach, California, USA

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Amrit Bhangoo Pediatric Intensive Care, Miller Children's Hospital, Long Beach, California, USA

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Summary

Neonatal hyperkalemia and hyponatremia are medical conditions that require an emergent diagnosis and treatment to avoid morbidity and mortality. Here, we describe the case of a 10-day-old female baby presenting with life-threatening hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, and metabolic acidosis diagnosed as autosomal dominant pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 (PHA1). This report aims to recognize that PHA1 may present with a life-threatening arrhythmia due to severe hyperkalemia and describes the management of such cases in neonates.

Learning points

  • PHA1 may present with a life-threatening arrhythmia.

  • Presentation of PHA can be confused with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

  • Timing and appropriate medical management in the critical care unit prevented fatality from severe neonatal PHA.

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