Clinical Overview > Condition/ Syndrome > Hypoglycaemia
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Monash Centre for Health Research and Implementation, Clayton, Australia
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Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, Australia
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Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, Australia
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Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, Australia
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Monash Centre for Health Research and Implementation, Clayton, Australia
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Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, Australia
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Summary
The association between type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and bone health has garnered interest over the years. Fracture risk is known to be increased in individuals with T1DM, although bone health assessment is not often performed in the clinical setting. We describe the case of a 21-year-old male with longstanding T1DM with multilevel vertebral fractures on imaging, after presenting with acute back pain without apparent trauma. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) revealed significantly reduced bone mineral density at the lumbar spine and femoral neck. Extensive investigations for other secondary or genetic causes of osteoporosis were unremarkable, apart from moderate vitamin D deficiency. High-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography and bone biospy revealed significant alterations of trabecular bone microarchitecture. It later transpired that the patient had sustained vertebral fractures secondary to unrecognised nocturnal hypoglycaemic seizures. Intravenous zoledronic acid was administered for secondary fracture prevention. Despite anti-resorptive therapy, the patient sustained a new vertebral fracture after experiencing another hypoglycaemic seizure in his sleep. Bone health in T1DM is complex and not well understood. There are significant challenges in the assessment and management of osteoporosis in T1DM, particularly in young adults, where fracture prediction tools have not been validated. Clinicians should be aware of hypoglycaemia as a significant risk factor for fracture in patients with T1DM.
Learning points:
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Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a secondary cause of osteoporosis, characterised by reduced bone mass and disturbed bone microarchitecture.
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Hypoglycaemic seizures generate sufficient compression forces along the thoracic column and can cause fractures in individuals with compromised bone quality.
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Unrecognised hypoglycaemic seizures should be considered in patients with T1DM presenting with fractures without a history of trauma.
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Patients with T1DM have increased fracture risk and risk factors should be addressed. Evaluation of bone microarchitecture may provide further insights into mechanisms of fracture in T1DM.
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Further research is needed to guide the optimal screening and management of bone health in patients with T1DM.
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Summary
Hypoglycemia is induced by many causes, especially over-dose of insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents in diabetic subjects. In such a case, hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia is usually observed. On the other hand, it is important to classify secondary hypoglycemia and hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia. Liver injury-induced hypoglycemia is one of the causes of hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia but rarely observed in clinical practice. Herein, we experienced similar 2 cases of non-diabetic hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia. Both of them were elderly subjects with low body weight. Furthermore, it is likely that hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia in both subjects was triggered by severe liver injury, at least in part, due to possible limited liver glycogen store. In elderly subjects with low body weight and/or malnutrition, metabolism in the liver is reduced and glycogen accumulation is decreased. Such alteration brings out acute and marked liver injury, which finally leads to the onset of severe hypoglycemia. It is known that not only liver injury but also multiple organ failure could be induced due to extreme emaciation in subjects. It is likely that in elderly subjects with low body weight and/or malnutrition, multiple organ failure including liver failure could be induced due to the similar reason. Therefore, we should be very careful of such subjects in order to avoid the development of multiple organ failure which leads to life-threatening situations. In conclusion, we should keep in mind the possibility of hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia when we examine severe liver injury, especially in elderly or starving subjects with low body weight and limited liver glycogen stores.
Learning points:
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It is important to classify secondary hypoglycemia and hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia.
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Liver injury-induced hypoglycemia is one of the causes of hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia but rarely observed in everyday clinical practice.
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Herein, we reported similar 2 cases of hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia without diabetes presumably triggered by severe liver injury.
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In both cases, hypoglycemia was improved by glucose infusion, although their liver injury was not improved.
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We should keep in mind the possibility of hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia when we examine severe liver injury, especially in elderly subjects with low body weight.
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Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Summary
Insulinomas are rare neuroendocrine tumours that classically present with fasting hypoglycaemia. This case report discusses an uncommon and challenging case of insulinoma soon after upper gastrointestinal surgery. A 63-year-old man presented with 6 months of post-prandial hypoglycaemia beginning after a laparoscopic revision of Toupet fundoplication. Hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia was confirmed during a spontaneous episode and in a mixed-meal test. Localisation studies including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) and gallium dotatate positron emission tomography (68Ga Dotatate PET) were consistent with a small insulinoma in the mid-body of the pancreas. The lesion was excised and histopathology was confirmed a localised well-differentiated neuroendocrine pancreatic neoplasm. There have been no significant episodes of hypoglycaemia since. This case highlights several key points. Insulinoma should be sought in proven post-prandial hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia – even in the absence of fasting hypoglycaemia. The use of nuclear imaging targeting somatostatin and GLP1 receptors has improved accuracy of localisation. Despite these advances, accurate surgical resection can remain challenging.
Learning points:
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Hypoglycaemia is defined by Whipple’s triad and can be provoked by fasting or mixed-meal tests.
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Although uncommon, insulinomas can present with post-prandial hypoglycaemia.
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In hypoglycaemia following gastrointestinal surgery (i.e. bariatric surgery or less commonly Nissen fundoplication) dumping syndrome or non-insulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycaemia syndrome (NIPHS) should be considered.
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Improved imaging techniques including MRI, endoscopic ultrasound and functional nuclear medicine scans aid localisation of insulinomas.
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Despite advances in imaging and surgical techniques, accurate resection of insulinomas remains challenging.
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Summary
A case of follicular thyroid cancer with intense focal Methionine uptake on 11C-Methionine PET/CT is reported here. The use of 11C-Methionine PET in differentiated thyroid cancer is currently being investigated as a surrogate tracer compared to the more widely used 18F-FDG PET. This case illustrates the potential incremental value of this modality, not only in the localizing of parathyroid adenoma, but also indicating that 11C-Methionine PET might have a potential of increasing the pretest likelihood of thyroid malignancy in a cold nodule with highly increased Sestamibi uptake.
Learning points:
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11C-Methionine PET/CT and 18F-Fluorocholine PET/CT often visualizes the parathyroid adenoma in case of negative Tc-99m-MIBI SPECT/CT.
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A cold nodule in Tc-99m Pertechnetat thyroid scintigraphy with a negative Sestamibi scintigraphy has a very low probability of being malignant.
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However, the pretest likelihood of thyroid cancer in a cold nodule with increased Sestamibi uptake is low.
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11C-Methionine PET might have a potential incremental value in increasing the pretest likelihood of thyroid malignancy in a cold nodule with highly increased Sestamibi uptake.
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Summary
Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is a genetic syndrome that may present with hypocalcemia due to primary hypoparathyroidism (PH) at any age. We report a new diagnosis of 22q11.2DS in a 57-year-old man who presented with symptomatic hypocalcemia. It is important to consider genetic causes of hypocalcemia due to PH regardless of age.
Learning points:
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It is important to discard genetic cause of primary hypoparathyroidism in a patient without autoimmune disease or prior neck surgery.
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A new diagnosis of a hereditary disease has familial implications and needs genetic counselling.
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It is also important to discard other syndrome’s comorbidities.
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Summary
Metformin is recommended as the first-line agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Although this drug has a generally good safety profile, rare but potentially serious adverse effects may occur. Metformin-associated lactic acidosis, although very uncommon, carries a significant risk of mortality. The relationship between metformin accumulation and lactic acidosis is complex and is affected by the presence of comorbid conditions such as renal and hepatic disease. Plasma metformin levels do not reliably correlate with the severity of lactic acidosis. We present a case of inadvertent metformin overdose in a patient with both renal failure and hepatic cirrhosis, leading to two episodes of lactic acidosis and hypoglycemia. The patient was successfully treated with hemodialysis both times and did not develop any further lactic acidosis or hypoglycemia, after the identification of metformin tablets accidentally mixed in with his supply of sevelamer tablets. Early initiation of renal replacement therapy is key in decreasing lactic acidosis-associated mortality.
Learning points:
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When a toxic ingestion is suspected, direct visualization of the patient’s pills is advised in order to rule out the possibility of patient- or pharmacist-related medication errors.
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Though sending a specimen for determination of the plasma metformin concentration is important when a metformin-treated patient with diabetes presents with lactic acidosis, complex relationships exist between metformin accumulation, hyperlactatemia and acidosis, and the drug may not always be the precipitating factor.
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Intermittent hemodialysis is recommended as the first-line treatment for metformin-associated lactic acidosis (MALA).
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An investigational delayed-release form of metformin with reduced systemic absorption may carry a lower risk for MALA in patients with renal insufficiency, in whom metformin therapy may presently be contraindicated.
Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Summary
Bariatric surgery is an effective therapy for obesity but is associated with long-term complications such as dumping syndromes and nutritional deficiencies. We report a case of a 26-year-old caucasian female, with history of morbid obesity and gestational diabetes (GDM), who became pregnant 4 months after Roux-en-Y bypass surgery. She developed GDM during subsequent pregnancy, which was initially managed with metformin and insulin. Nocturnal hypoglycaemia causing sleep disturbance and daytime somnolence occured at 19 weeks of pregnancy (19/40). Treatment with rapid-acting carbohydrates precipitated further hypoglycaemia. Laboratory investigations confirmed hypoglycaemia at 2.2 mmol/L with appropriately low insulin and C-peptide, intact HPA axis and negative IgG insulin antibodies. The patient was seen regularly by the bariatric dietetic team but concerns about compliance persisted. A FreeStyle Libre system was used from 21/40 enabling the patient a real-time feedback of changes in interstitial glucose following high or low GI index food intake. The patient declined a trial of acarbose but consented to an intraveneous dextrose infusion overnight resulting in improvement but not complete abolishment of nocturnal hypoglycaemia. Hypoglycaemias subsided at 34/40 and metformin and insulin had to be re-introduced due to high post-prandial blood glucose readings. An emergency C-section was indicated at 35 + 1/40 and a small-for-gestational-age female was delivered. There have been no further episodes of hypoglycaemia following delivery. This case illustrates challenges in the management of pregnancy following bariatric surgery. To our knowledge, this is the first use of FreeStyle Libre in dumping syndrome in pregnancy following bariatric surgery with troublesome nocturnal hypoglycaemia.
Learning points:
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Bariatric surgery represents the most effective treatment modality in cases of severe obesity. With increasing prevalence of obesity, more people are likely to undergo bariatric procedures, many of which are women of childbearing age.
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Fertility generally improves after bariatric surgery due to weight reduction, but pregnancy is not recommended for at least 12–24 months after surgery. If pregnancy occurs, there are currently little evidence-based guidelines available on how to manage complications such as dumping syndromes or gestational diabetes (GDM) in women with history of bariatric surgery.
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Diagnosis of GDM relies on the use of a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The use of this test in pregnant women is not recommended due to its potential to precipitate dumping syndrome. Capillary glucose monitoring profiles or continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) is being currently discussed as alternative testing modalities.
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As the CGM technology becomes more available, including the recently introduced FreeStyle Libre Flash glucose monitoring system, more pregnant women, including those after bariatric surgery, will have access to this technology. We suggest urgent development of guidelines regarding the use of CGM and flash glucose monitoring tools in these circumstances and in the interim recommend careful consideration of their use on a case-to-case basis.
NHMRC Clinical Trials Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Hormones & Cancer Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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Pancreatogenic diabetes is characterised by recurrent severe hypoglycaemia due to changes in both endocrine and exocrine functions. There are no guidelines to manage these individuals. Herein, we describe the post-operative management of two people who developed pancreatogenic diabetes following total pancreatectomy for neuroendocrine malignancy. In both individuals, diabetes was managed using sensor-augmented predictive low-glucose suspend continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII). We demonstrate the benefit of sensor-augmented CSII in averting hypoglycaemia whilst optimising glycaemic control. Expected rates of severe hypoglycaemia in individuals with pancreatogenic diabetes can be averted with the use of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) technology, optimising quality of life and reducing the risk of diabetes-related complications.
Learning points:
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There are no clear guidelines to manage people with pancreatogenic diabetes.
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We describe the use of CGM with predictive low-glucose suspend continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) in the management of two individuals post-pancreatectomy.
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Predictive low-glucose suspend technology can achieve excellent glycaemic control whilst avoiding recurrent and severe hypoglycaemia in people with pancreatogenic diabetes.
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Predictive low-glucose suspend CGM should be considered as an effective therapeutic option for the management of pancreatogenic diabetes.
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Summary
MEN1-associated pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNETs) may potentially express distinct hormones, but the mechanism has not been elucidated. Transcription factors such as MafA and Pdx1 have been identified to lead to beta cell differentiation, while Arx and Brn4 to alpha cell differentiation in developing pancreas. We hypothesized those transcription factors are important to produce specific hormones in pNETs, similarly to developing pancreas, and examined the expression of transcription factors in a case of MEN1 who showed immunohistological coexistence of several hormone-producing pNETs including insulinoma. A 70-year-old woman was found to manifest hypoglycemia with non-suppressed insulinemia and hypercalcemia with elevated PTH level. She was diagnosed as MEN1 based on the manifestation of primary hyperparathyroidism, pituitary adenoma and insulinoma, with genetic variation of MEN1 gene. She had pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy because CT scan and SACI test indicated that insulinoma was localized in the head of the pancreas. Histopathological finding was MEN1-associated NET, G1. Interestingly, immunohistological examination of the resected pancreas revealed that two insulinomas, a glucagon-positive NET and a multiple hormone-positive NET coexisted. Hence, we examined the expression of transcription factors immunohistochemically to elucidate the role of the transcription factors in MEN1-associated hormone-producing pNETs. We observed homogeneous expressions of MafA and Pdx1 in insulinomas and Arx in glucagon-positive NET, respectively. Moreover, multiple hormone-positive NETs expressed several transcription factors heterogeneously. Collectively, our results suggested that transcription factors could play important roles in the production of specific hormones in MEN1-associated pNETs, similar to islet differentiation.
Learning points:
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To date, it has been shown that different hormone-producing tumors coexist in MEN1-associated pNETs; however, the underlying mechanism of the hormone production in MEN1-associated pNETs has not been well elucidated.
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Although this case presented symptomatic hypoglycemia, several hormone-producing pNETs other than insulinoma also coexisted in the pancreas.
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Immunohistochemical analysis showed MafA and Pdx1 expressions distinctly in insulinoma, and Arx expression particularly in a glucagon-positive NET, while a multiple hormone-positive NET expressed MafA, Pdx1 and Arx.
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Collectively, clinicians should consider that several hormone-producing pNETs may coexist in a MEN1 case and examine both endocrinological and histopathological analysis of pNETs, regardless of whether symptoms related to the excess of hormones are observed or not.
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Summary
We present a patient (87 years, female) who was admitted to the emergency department because of loss of consciousness. Previous medical history included advanced-stage hepatocellular carcinoma and associated weight loss. She was found on the ground in an unresponsive state by her daughter and was determined to be hypoglycaemic. Upon bolus administration of 100 mL intravenous glucose (10%), glucose levels increased to 2.9 mmol/L and the patient regained full consciousness. She was admitted to the hospital for further examination, and treatment and continuous intravenous glucose infusion was initiated. As the patient was known to suffer from advanced-stage hepatocellular carcinoma, tumour-associated hypoglycaemia was suspected. Insulin, c-peptide and IGF1 concentrations were indeed low, cortisol concentration was high and IGF2 and Pro-IGF2 were borderline low and borderline high normal respectively. IGF2:IGF1 ratio was 23, confirming the diagnosis of non-islet cell tumour hypoglycaemia. During the initial phase of treatment, euglycaemia was maintained by continuous variable glucose infusion (5%, varying between 1 and 2 L/24 h), and the patient was advised to eat small snacks throughout the day. After euglycaemia was established and the diagnosis was confirmed, prednisolone was started (30 mg, 1 dd) and glucose infusions were halted. Under prednisolone treatment, glucose levels were slightly increased and no further hypoglycaemic episodes occurred. At her request, no surgery was performed. After 19 days, the patient was discharged to a hospice and died 3 weeks later.
Learning points:
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Hepatocellular carcinoma may be associated with non-islet cell tumour hypoglycaemia (NICTH).
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NICTH-induced hypoglycaemia is associated with low insulin and IGF1.
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Measurement of IGF2 only (without measurement of Pro-IGF2 and IGF1) may be insufficient to prove NICTH.