Clinical Overview > Condition/ Syndrome > Hypoglycaemia

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Adriana de Sousa Lages Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism

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Isabel Paiva Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism

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Patrícia Oliveira Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism

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Francisco Portela Departments of Gastroenterology, Coimbra Hospital and University Center, Coimbra, Portugal

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Francisco Carrilho Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism

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Summary

Insulinomas are the most frequent cause of hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia. Although surgical enucleation is the standard treatment, a few other options are available to high-risk patients who are elderly or present with co-morbidities. We present a case report of an 89-year-old female patient who was admitted to the emergency department due to recurrent hypoglycaemia, especially during fasting. Laboratory work-up raised the suspicion of hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia, and abdominal CT scan revealed a 12 mm nodular hypervascular lesion of the pancreatic body suggestive of neuroendocrine tumour. The patient was not considered a suitable candidate for surgery, and medical therapy with diazoxide was poorly tolerated. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided ethanol ablation therapy was performed and a total of 0.6 mL of 95% ethanol was injected into the lesion by a transgastric approach; no complications were reported after the procedure. At 5 months of follow-up, no episodes of hypoglycaemia were reported, no diazoxide therapy was necessary, and revaluation abdominal CT scan revealed a pancreatic nodular lesion with a size involution of about half of its original volume. The patient is regularly followed-up at the endocrinology clinic and shows a significant improvement in her wellbeing and quality of life.

Learning points:

  • Insulinomas are the most frequent cause of hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia.

  • Surgical enucleation is the standard treatment with a few other options available to high-risk patients.

  • Endoscopic ultrasound-guided ethanol ablation therapy is one feasible option in high-risk patients with satisfactory clinical outcomes, significant positive impact on quality of life and low complication rates related to the procedure.

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Dinesh Giri Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK

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Prashant Patil Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK

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Rachel Hart Liverpool Women’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK

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Mohammed Didi Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK

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Senthil Senniappan Alder Hey Children’s NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK

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Summary

Poland syndrome (PS) is a rare congenital condition, affecting 1 in 30 000 live births worldwide, characterised by a unilateral absence of the sternal head of the pectoralis major and ipsilateral symbrachydactyly occasionally associated with abnormalities of musculoskeletal structures. A baby girl, born at 40 weeks’ gestation with birth weight of 3.33 kg (−0.55 SDS) had typical phenotypical features of PS. She had recurrent hypoglycaemic episodes early in life requiring high concentration of glucose and glucagon infusion. The diagnosis of congenital hyperinsulinism (CHI) was biochemically confirmed by inappropriately high plasma concentrations of insulin and C-peptide and low plasma free fatty acids and β-hydroxyl butyrate concentrations during hypoglycaemia. Sequencing of ABCC8, KCNJ11 and HNF4A did not show any pathogenic mutation. Microarray analysis revealed a novel duplication in the short arm of chromosome 10 at 10p13–14 region. This is the first reported case of CHI in association with PS and 10p duplication. We hypothesise that the HK1 located on the chromosome 10 encoding hexokinase-1 is possibly linked to the pathophysiology of CHI.

Learning points:

  • Congenital hyperinsulinism (CHI) is known to be associated with various syndromes.

  • This is the first reported association of CHI and Poland syndrome (PS) with duplication in 10p13–14.

  • A potential underlying genetic link between 10p13–14 duplication, PS and CHI is a possibility.

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Marianne Geilswijk Departments of Clinical Genetics

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Lise Lotte Andersen Departments of Obstetrics
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Morten Frost Departments of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Klaus Brusgaard Departments of Clinical Genetics
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Henning Beck-Nielsen Departments of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Anja Lisbeth Frederiksen Departments of Clinical Genetics
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Dorte Møller Jensen Departments of Obstetrics
Departments of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Summary

Hypoglycemia during pregnancy can have serious health implications for both mother and fetus. Although not generally recommended in pregnancy, synthetic somatostatin analogues are used for the management of blood glucose levels in expectant hyperinsulinemic mothers. Recent reports suggest that octreotide treatment in pregnancy, as well as hypoglycemia in itself, may pose a risk of fetal growth restriction. During pregnancy, management of blood glucose levels in familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia thus forms a medical dilemma. We report on pregnancy outcomes in a woman with symptomatic familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, type 3. During the patient’s first pregnancy with a viable fetus octreotide treatment was instituted in gestational age 23 weeks to prevent severe hypoglycemic incidences. Fetal growth velocity declined, and at 37 weeks of gestation, intrauterine growth retardation was evident. During the second pregnancy with a viable fetus, blood glucose levels were managed through dietary intervention alone. Thus, the patient was advised to take small but frequent meals high in fiber and low in carbohydrates. Throughout pregnancy, no incidences of severe hypoglycemia occurred and fetal growth velocity was normal. We conclude that octreotide treatment during pregnancy may pose a risk of fetal growth restriction and warrants careful consideration. In some cases of familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, blood glucose levels can be successfully managed through diet only, also during pregnancy.

Learning points:

  • Gain-of-function mutations in GCK cause familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia.

  • Hypoglycemia during pregnancy may have serious health implications for mother and fetus.

  • Pregnancy with hyperinsulinism represents a medical dilemma as hypoglycemia as well as octreotide treatment may pose a risk of fetal growth restriction.

  • In some cases of familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, blood glucose levels can be successfully managed through diet only.

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Chih-Ting Su Faculty of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan

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Yi-Chun Lin Faculty of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan

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Summary

Insulin antibodies (IA) associated with exogenous insulin administration seldom caused hypoglycemia and had different characteristics from insulin autoantibodies (IAA) found in insulin autoimmune syndrome (IAS), which was first described by Dr Hirata in 1970. The characteristic of IAS is the presence of insulin-binding autoantibodies and related fasting or late postprandial hypoglycemia. Here, we report a patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus under insulin glargine and insulin aspart treatment who developed recurrent spontaneous post-absorptive hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia with the cause probably being insulin antibodies induced by exogenous injected insulin. Examinations of serial sera disclosed a high titre of insulin antibodies (33%, normal <5%), high insulin concentration (111.9 IU/mL) and undetectable C-peptide when hypoglycemia occurred. An oral glucose tolerance test revealed persistent high serum levels of total insulin and undetectable C-peptide. Image studies of the pancreas were unremarkable, which excluded the diagnosis of insulinoma. The patient does not take any of the medications containing sulfhydryl compounds, which had been reported to cause IAS. After administering oral prednisolone for 3 weeks, hypoglycemic episodes markedly improved, and he was discharged smoothly.

Learning points:

  • Insulin autoimmune syndrome (IAS) or IAS-like situation should be one of the differential diagnosis in patients with hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia.

  • Although less reported, insulin antibodies (IA) caused by exogenous insulin analog should be considered as the cause of hypoglycemia.

  • Patients with suspected insulin autoimmune syndrome (IAS) should be screened for drugs related to autoimmunity to endogenous insulin.

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Katia Regina Marchetti Department of General Medicine

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Maria Adelaide Albergaria Pereira Department of Endocrinology, Clinics Hospital, University of Sao Paulo School of Medicine, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil

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Arnaldo Lichtenstein Department of General Medicine

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Edison Ferreira Paiva Department of General Medicine

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Summary

Adrenacarcinomas are rare, and hypoglycemic syndrome resulting from the secretion of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) by these tumors have been described infrequently. This study describes the case of a young woman with severe persistent hypoglycemia and a large adrenal tumor and discusses the physiopathological mechanisms involved in hypoglycemia. The case is described as a 21-year-old woman who presented with 8 months of general symptoms and, in the preceding 3 months, with episodes of mental confusion and visual blurring secondary to hypoglycemia. A functional assessment of the adrenal cortex revealed ACTH-independent hypercortisolism and hyperandrogenism. Hypoglycemia, hypoinsulinemia, low C-peptide and no ketones were also detected. An evaluation of the GH–IGF axis revealed GH blockade (0.03; reference: up to 4.4 ng/mL), greatly reduced IGF-I levels (9.0 ng/mL; reference: 180–780 ng/mL), slightly reduced IGF-II levels (197 ng/mL; reference: 267–616 ng/mL) and an elevated IGF-II/IGF-I ratio (21.9; reference: ~3). CT scan revealed a large expansive mass in the right adrenal gland and pulmonary and liver metastases. During hospitalization, the patient experienced frequent difficult-to-control hypoglycemia and hypokalemia episodes. Octreotide was ineffective in controlling hypoglycemia. Due to unresectability, chemotherapy was tried, but after 3 months, the patient’s condition worsened and progressed to death. In conclusion, our patient presented with a functional adrenal cortical carcinoma, with hyperandrogenism associated with hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia and blockage of the GH–IGF-I axis. Patient’s data suggested a diagnosis of hypoglycemia induced by an IGF-II or a large IGF-II-producing tumor (low levels of GH, greatly decreased IGF-I, slightly decreased IGF-II and an elevated IGF-II/IGF-I ratio).

Learning points:

  • Hypoglycemyndrome resulting from the secretion of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) by adrenal tumors is a rare condition.

  • Hypoinsulinemic hypoglycemia associated with hyperandrogenism and blockage of the GH–IGF-I axis suggests hypoglycemia induced by an IGF-II or a large IGF-II-producing tumor.

  • Hypoglycemia in cases of NICTH should be treated with glucocorticoids, glucagon, somatostatin analogs and hGH.

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Anthony Logaraj Department of Surgery, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Venessa H M Tsang The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Department of Endocrinology, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia

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Shahrir Kabir Department of Surgery, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Julian C Y Ip Department of Surgery, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Summary

Adrenal haemorrhage is a rare cause of adrenal crisis, which requires rapid diagnosis, prompt initiation of parenteral hydrocortisone and haemodynamic monitoring to avoid hypotensive crises. We herein describe a case of bilateral adrenal haemorrhage after hemicolectomy in a 93-year-old female with high-grade colonic adenocarcinoma. This patient’s post-operative recovery was complicated by an acute hypotensive episode, hypoglycaemia and syncope, and subsequent computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen revealed bilateral adrenal haemorrhage. Given her labile blood pressure, intravenous hydrocortisone was commenced with rapid improvement of blood pressure, which had incompletely responded with fluids. A provisional diagnosis of hypocortisolism was made. Initial heparin-induced thrombocytopenic screen (HITTS) was positive, but platelet count and coagulation profile were both normal. The patient suffered a concurrent transient ischaemic attack with no neurological deficits. She was discharged on a reducing dose of oral steroids with normal serum cortisol levels at the time of discharge. She and her family were educated about lifelong steroids and the use of parenteral steroids should a hypoadrenal crisis eventuate.

Learning points:

  • Adrenal haemorrhage is a rare cause of hypoadrenalism, and thus requires prompt diagnosis and management to prevent death from primary adrenocortical insufficiency.

  • Mechanisms of adrenal haemorrhage include reduced adrenal vascular bed capillary resistance, adrenal vein thrombosis, catecholamine-related increased adrenal blood flow and adrenal vein spasm.

  • Standard diagnostic assessment is a non-contrast CT abdomen.

  • Intravenous hydrocortisone and intravenous substitution of fluids are the initial management.

  • A formal diagnosis of primary adrenal insufficiency should never delay treatment, but should be made afterwards.

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Kah-Yin Loke Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children’s Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore

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Andrew Sng Anjian Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children’s Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore

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Yvonne Lim Yijuan Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children’s Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore

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Cindy Ho Wei Li Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children’s Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore

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Maria Güemes Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Clinical and Molecular Genetics Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK

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Khalid Hussain Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, Clinical and Molecular Genetics Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK

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Summary

Hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia (HH), which causes persistent neonatal hypoglycaemia, can result in neurological damage and it’s management is challenging. Diazoxide is the first-line treatment, albeit not all patients will fully respond to it, as episodes of hypoglycaemia may persist and it entails unpleasant adverse effects. Sirolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, has reportedly been successful in treating children with severe diffuse HH, thus obviating the need for pancreatectomy. We report a girl with HH, with a novel heterozygous ABCC8 gene missense mutation (c.4154A>T/ p.Lys1385Thr), who was initially responsive to diazoxide therapy. After 11 months of diazoxide treatment, she developed intermittent, unpredictable breakthrough episodes of hypoglycaemia, in addition to generalized hypertrichosis and weight gain from enforced feeding to avoid hypoglycaemia. Sirolimus, which was commenced at 15 months of age, gradually replaced diazoxide, with significant reduction and abolition of hypoglycaemia. The hypertrichosis resolved and there was less weight gain given the reduced need for enforced feeding. Sirolimus, which was administered over the next 15 months, was well tolerated with no significant side effects and was gradually weaned off. After stopping sirolimus, apart from hypoglycaemia developing during an episode of severe viral gastroenteritis, the capillary glucose concentrations were maintained >3.5 mmol/L, even after a 10 h fast. Sirolimus may have a role in the treatment of partially diazoxide-responsive forms of HH who experience breakthrough hypoglycaemia, but the long-term safety and efficacy of sirolimus are not established.

Learning points:

  • Conventional treatment of diffuse HH with diazoxide is not always effective in controlling hypoglycaemia and can be associated with unpleasant side effects.

  • Sirolimus was successfully used to abolish recurrent hypoglycaemia in partially diazoxide-responsive HH, with resolution of unacceptable diazoxide-associated side effects.

  • Sirolimus was well tolerated with no clinically significant side effects.

  • Shortly after stopping sirolimus, the capillary glucose levels remained normoglycemic.

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Pooja Sahni Division on Endocrinology and Metabolic Medicine and Department of Internal Medicine, St Vincent Hospital, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

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Nitin Trivedi Division on Endocrinology and Metabolic Medicine and Department of Internal Medicine, St Vincent Hospital, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

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Abdulkadir Omer Division on Endocrinology and Metabolic Medicine and Department of Internal Medicine, St Vincent Hospital, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

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Summary

A 65-year-old obese Caucasian woman presented with symptomatic postprandial hypoglycemic episodes, resolution of symptoms with carbohydrate intake and significantly elevated anti-insulin antibody levels. She did not have any evidence for the use of oral antidiabetic medications, insulin, herbal substances, performing strenuous exercise or history of bariatric surgery. Fingerstick blood glucose readings revealed blood sugar of 35 mg/dL and 48 mg/dL, when she had these symptoms. Her medical history was significant for morbid obesity, hypothyroidism and gastro esophageal reflux disease. Her home medications included levothyroxine, propranolol and omeprazole. A blood sample obtained during the symptoms revealed the following: fingerstick blood sugar 38 mg/dL, venous blood glucose 60 mg/dL (normal (n): 70–99 mg/dL), serum insulin 202 IU/mL (n: <21), proinsulin 31.3 pmol/L (n: <28.9), C-peptide 8 ng/mL (n: 0.9–7), beta-hydroxybutyrate 0.12 mmol/L (n: 0.02–0.27) anti-insulin antibody >45.4 U/mL (n: <0.4). The result obtained while screening for serum sulfonylurea and meglitinides was negative. The repeated episodes of postprandial hypoglycemia associated with significantly elevated anti-insulin antibodies led to a diagnosis of insulin antibody syndrome (IAS). Significant improvement of hypoglycemic symptoms and lower anti-insulin antibody levels (33 U/mL) was noted on nutritional management during the following 6 months. Based on a report of pantoprazole-related IAS cases, her omeprazole was switched to a H2 receptor blocker. She reported only two episodes of hypoglycemia, and anti-insulin antibody levels were significantly lower at 10 U/mL after the following 12-month follow-up.

Learning points:

  • Initial assessment of the Whipple criteria is critical to establish the clinical diagnosis of hypoglycemia accurately.

  • Blood sugar monitoring with fingerstick blood glucose method can provide important information during hypoglycemia workup.

  • Autoimmune hypoglycemia is a rare cause of hypoglycemia, which can be diagnosed on high index of clinical suspicion and systematic evaluation.

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Chun-Han Lo Chung Shan Medical University School of Medicine, Taichung, Taiwan

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Ding-Ping Sun Department of Surgery, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan

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Summary

Insulinomas are the most common cause of hypoglycemia resulting from endogenous hyperinsulinism. Traditionally, inappropriately elevated levels of insulin in the face of hypoglycemia are the key to diagnosis. However, contradictory levels of insulin and C-peptide do not necessarily exclude the diagnosis. A 50-year-old female was brought to our emergency department because of conscious disturbance on the previous night. She had no history of diabetes mellitus, and was not using any medications or alcohol. Laboratory data showed low sugar, a significantly low insulin level, and elevated C-peptide. After admission, she had multiple episodes of spontaneous hypoglycemia after overnight fasts without discomfort. It was considered that a neuroendocrine tumor was the source of her hypoglycemia. CT scan of the abdomen revealed a 1.1cm hypervascular nodule in the pancreatic tail. Elective laparoscopic distal pancreatectomy was incorporated into her treatment course. A 1.2×1.0cm homogenous well-encapsulated tumor was resected. We monitored her glucose levels in the outpatient clinic every month for a period of six months. She did not have another episode of spontaneous hypoglycemia.

Learning points

  • Insulinoma causes endogenous hypoglycemia – it cannot be ruled out in patients presenting with hypoglycemia and low insulin levels; history and imaging studies should be done for further assessment

  • A 24-h fast test has the same clinical significance as that of 72-h fast test

  • C-peptide is a useful biochemical marker in addition to serum insulin, which can be used to diagnose insulinomas

  • CT scan is used to measure the tumor size and localize the tumor. However, definitive diagnosis is only achieved through histopathologic evaluation of diseased tissue

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Akira Kurozumi First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Yosuke Okada First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Tadashi Arao First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan
Department of Internal Medicine, Japan Labour Health and Welfare Organization, Kyushu Rosai Hospital, Moji Medical Center, Kyushu, Japan

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Yusuke Miyazaki First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Maiko Yoshikawa First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Keiichi Torimoto First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Satoshi Kubo First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Shingo Nakayamada First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Yoshiya Tanaka First Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu, Japan

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Summary

A randomized controlled study of rituximab demonstrated that the drug protects pancreatic function in patients with acute-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus (AOT1DM). However, the mechanism of this protective effect is poorly understood. We examined the effects of rituximab in two patients with AOT1DM in the honeymoon period and the mechanism of these effects. Case 1 was a 40-year-old man and Case 2 was a 45-year-old man, both diagnosed with AOT1DM. Various tests indicated intact capacity for endogenous insulin secretion and that they were in the honeymoon phase of AOT1DM. Treatment with rituximab protected against pancreatic β-cell damage and maintained somewhat the endogenous insulin secretion. In Case 2, HbA1c level was maintained below 6.5% up to 24 months after treatment. However, in Case 1, the patient showed a gradual increase in HbA1c level starting around 9 months but fell at 12 months to >9.0% and required an insulin dose about twice greater than that of Case 2. High spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) levels were recorded in the two patients before rituximab administration and after the treatment, the levels were further increased in Case 1, but decreased in Case 2. Both patients require continuous careful follow-up for glycemic control, insulin secretion capacity, and adverse reactions in the future. Although the clinical relevance of high Syk levels in AOT1DM patients remains unclear, the difference in the change in Syk level between the two patients may explain the different clinical courses.

Learning points

  • We described the pancreas-protective effect of rituximab in two patients with acute-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus in the honeymoon period and investigated the possible mechanism of action.

  • The present study demonstrated that treatment with rituximab maintained endogenous insulin secretion capacity for 2 years in the two patients.

  • The phosphorylated-spleen tyrosine kinase (p-Syk) data suggest that the differences in HbA1c level and the required insulin dose between the two patients could be due to reactivation or nonreactivation of β-cells.

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