Diagnosis and Treatment > Investigation > Haemoglobin A1c

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Elena Carrillo Endocrinologists in Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Castilla La Mancha, Spain

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Amparo Lomas Endocrinologists in Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Castilla La Mancha, Spain

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Pedro J Pinés Endocrinologists in Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Castilla La Mancha, Spain

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Cristina Lamas Endocrinologists in Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Albacete, Castilla La Mancha, Spain

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Summary

Mutations in hepatocyte nuclear factor 1β gene (HNF1B) are responsible for a multisystemic syndrome where monogenic diabetes (classically known as MODY 5) and renal anomalies, mostly cysts, are the most characteristic findings. Urogenital malformations, altered liver function tests, hypomagnesemia or hyperuricemia and gout are also part of the syndrome. Diabetes in these patients usually requires early insulinization. We present the case of a young non-obese male patient with a personal history of renal multicystic dysplasia and a debut of diabetes during adolescence with simple hyperglycemia, negative pancreatic autoimmunity and detectable C-peptide levels. He also presented epididymal and seminal vesicle cysts, hypertransaminasemia, hyperuricemia and low magnesium levels. In the light of these facts we considered the possibility of a HNF1B mutation. The sequencing study of this gene confirmed a heterozygous mutation leading to a truncated and less functional protein. Genetic studies of his relatives were negative; consequently, it was classified as a de novo mutation. In particular, our patient maintained good control of his diabetes on oral antidiabetic agents for a long period of time. He eventually needed insulinization although oral therapy was continued alongside, allowing reduction of prandial insulin requirements. The real prevalence of mutations in HNF1B is probably underestimated owing to a wide phenotypical variability. As endocrinologists, we should consider this possibility in young non-obese diabetic patients with a history of chronic non-diabetic nephropathy, especially in the presence of some of the other characteristic manifestations.

Learning points:

  • HNF1B mutations are a rare cause of monogenic diabetes, often being a part of a multisystemic syndrome.

  • The combination of young-onset diabetes and genitourinary anomalies with slowly progressive nephropathy of non-diabetic origin in non-obese subjects should rise the suspicion of such occurrence. A family history may not be present.

  • Once diagnosis is made, treatment of diabetes with oral agents is worth trying, since the response can be sustained for a longer period than the one usually described. Oral treatment can help postpone insulinization and, once this is necessary, can help reduce the required doses.

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Alessandro Mantovani Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Fabrizia Perrone Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Vincenzo Stoico Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Isabella Pichiri Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Laura Salvotelli Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Ilaria Teobaldi Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Massimiliano Bruti Division of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery

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Michela Conti Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine and

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Luca Cima Division of Pathology Unit, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University and Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata of Verona, Verona, Italy

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Albino Eccher Division of Pathology Unit, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University and Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata of Verona, Verona, Italy

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Enzo Bonora Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine

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Summary

The incidences of type 2 diabetes mellitus and many cancers are rapidly increasing worldwide. Diabetes is a strong risk factor for some cancers (including lymphomas) and is also associated with adverse cancer outcomes. After gastrointestinal tract, the skin is the second most frequent extranodal site involved by non-Hodgkin lymphomas and the cutaneous B-cell lymphomas (CBCLs) range from 25% to 30% of all primary cutaneous lymphomas. The primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (PCDLBCL) is an aggressive lymphoma with a poor prognosis, representing roughly 20% of all primary CBCLs. Classically, the cutaneous manifestation of this lymphoma is a red or violaceous tumors arising on a leg. To date, despite the large body of evidence suggesting that diabetes is strongly associated with an increased risk of some cancers, very little information is available regarding a possible association between type 2 diabetes and primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. In this report, we will present the case of a white adult patient with type 2 diabetes with chronic leg ulcers complicated by a primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Learning points:

  • Diabetes mellitus is increasing worldwide as well as the incidence of many cancers.

  • Diabetes mellitus is a powerful risk factor for some cancers (including lymphomas) and is strongly associated with adverse cancer outcomes.

  • Seen that diabetes is strongly associated with an increased risk of cancers (including cutaneous lymphomas), clinicians should always keep in mind this complication in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes, even in a chronic leg ulcer with hypertrophy of the wound edge, which is hard to heal and does not have the typical characteristics of a diabetic or vascular ulcer. In these cases, a biopsy should be performed to rule out a neoplasm.

  • Early diagnosis and correct management of cancer in a patient with type 2 diabetes are crucial to improve clinical outcomes.

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Ayanthi A Wijewardene Departments of Medicine

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Sarah J Glastras Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
Kolling Institute of Medical Research
Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Diana L Learoyd Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Bruce G Robinson Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Venessa H M Tsang Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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Summary

Medullary thyroid cancer (MTC) is a rare neuroendocrine tumour that originates from the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. The most common presentation of MTC is with a single nodule; however, by the time of diagnosis, most have spread to the surrounding cervical lymph nodes. Cushing’s syndrome is a rare complication of MTC and is due to ectopic adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) secretion by tumour cells. Cushing’s syndrome presents a challenging diagnostic and management issue in patients with MTC. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) previously used for the management of metastatic MTC have become an important therapeutic option for the management of ectopic ACTH in metastatic MTC. The article describes three cases of ectopic ACTH secretion in MTC and addresses the significant diagnostic and management challenges related to Cushing’s syndrome in metastatic MTC.

Learning points:

  • Medullary thyroid cancer (MTC) is a rare neuroendocrine tumour.

  • Cushing’s syndrome is a rare complication of MTC that has a significant impact on patients’ morbidity and mortality.

  • Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) provide an important therapeutic option for the management of ectopic ACTH in metastatic MTC.

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Murray B Gordon Allegheny Neuroendocrinology Center, Departments of Medicine and Neurosurgery, Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

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Kellie L Spiller Allegheny Neuroendocrinology Center, Departments of Medicine and Neurosurgery, Allegheny General Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

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Summary

Long-acting pasireotide is an effective treatment option for acromegaly, but it is associated with hyperglycemia, which could impact its use in patients with diabetes. We present a case of a 53-year-old man with acromegaly and type 2 diabetes mellitus (glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c): 7.5%), who refused surgery to remove a pituitary macroadenoma and enrolled in a Phase 3 clinical trial comparing long-acting pasireotide and long-acting octreotide in acromegalic patients. The patient initially received octreotide, but insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels remained elevated after 12 months (383.9 ng/mL; 193.0 ng/mL; reference range: 86.5–223.8 ng/mL), indicating uncontrolled acromegaly. He switched to pasireotide 40 mg and subsequently increased to 60 mg. Within 6 months, IGF-1 levels normalized (193.0 ng/mL), and they were mostly normal for the next 62 months of treatment with pasireotide (median IGF-1: 190.7 ng/mL). Additionally, HbA1c levels remained similar to or lower than baseline levels (range, 6.7% to 7.8%) during treatment with pasireotide despite major changes to the patient’s antidiabetic regimen, which included insulin and metformin. Uncontrolled acromegaly can result in hyperglycemia due to an increase in insulin resistance. Despite having insulin-requiring type 2 diabetes, the patient presented here did not experience a long-term increase in HbA1c levels upon initiating pasireotide, likely because long-term control of acromegaly resulted in increased insulin sensitivity. This case highlights the utility of long-acting pasireotide to treat acromegaly in patients whose levels were uncontrolled after long-acting octreotide and who manage diabetes with insulin.

Learning points

  • Long-acting pasireotide provided adequate, long-term biochemical control of acromegaly in a patient with insulin-requiring type 2 diabetes mellitus who was unresponsive to long-acting octreotide.

  • Glycemic levels initially increased after starting treatment with pasireotide but quickly stabilized as acromegaly became controlled.

  • Long-acting pasireotide, along with an appropriate antidiabetic regimen, may be a suitable therapy for patients with acromegaly who also have insulin-requiring type 2 diabetes mellitus.

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Lourdes Balcázar-Hernández Endocrinology Department

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Guadalupe Vargas-Ortega Endocrinology Department

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Yelitza Valverde-García Anatomic Pathology Department, Hospital de Especialidades, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Colonia Doctores, Mexico City, Mexico

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Victoria Mendoza-Zubieta Endocrinology Department

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Baldomero González-Virla Endocrinology Department

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Summary

The craniopharyngiomas are solid cystic suprasellar tumors that can present extension to adjacent structures, conditioning pituitary and hypothalamic dysfunction. Within hypothalamic neuroendocrine dysfunction, we can find obesity, behavioral changes, disturbed circadian rhythm and sleep irregularities, imbalances in the regulation of body temperature, thirst, heart rate and/or blood pressure and alterations in dietary intake (like anorexia). We present a rare case of anorexia–cachexia syndrome like a manifestation of neuroendocrine dysfunction in a patient with a papillary craniopharyngioma. Anorexia–cachexia syndrome is a complex metabolic process associated with underlying illness and characterized by loss of muscle with or without loss of fat mass and can occur in a number of diseases like cancer neoplasm, non-cancer neoplasm, chronic disease or immunodeficiency states like HIV/AIDS. The role of cytokines and anorexigenic and orexigenic peptides are important in the etiology. The anorexia–cachexia syndrome is a clinical entity rarely described in the literature and it leads to important function limitation, comorbidities and worsening prognosis.

Learning points:

  • Suprasellar lesions can result in pituitary and hypothalamic dysfunction.

  • The hypothalamic neuroendocrine dysfunction is commonly related with obesity, behavioral changes, disturbed circadian rhythm and sleep irregularities, but rarely with anorexia–cachexia.

  • Anorexia–cachexia syndrome is a metabolic process associated with loss of muscle, with or without loss of fat mass, in a patient with neoplasm, chronic disease or immunodeficiency states.

  • Anorexia–cachexia syndrome results in important function limitation, comorbidities that influence negatively on treatment, progressive clinical deterioration and bad prognosis that can lead the patient to death.

  • Anorexia–cachexia syndrome should be suspected in patients with emaciation and hypothalamic lesions.

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Shinobu Takayasu Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Shingo Murasawa Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Satoshi Yamagata Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Kazunori Kageyama Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Takeshi Nigawara Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Yutaka Watanuki Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Daisuke Kimura Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Takao Tsushima Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Yoshiyuki Sakamoto Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Kenichi Hakamada Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Ken Terui Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Makoto Daimon Departments of Endocrinology and Metabolism

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Summary

Patients with Cushing’s syndrome and excess exogenous glucocorticoids have an increased risk for venous thromboembolism, as well as arterial thrombi. The patients are at high risk of thromboembolic events, especially during active disease and even in cases of remission and after surgery in Cushing’s syndrome and withdrawal state in glucocorticoid users. We present a case of Cushing’s syndrome caused by adrenocorticotropic hormone-secreting lung carcinoid tumor. Our patient developed acute mesenteric ischemia after video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery despite administration of sufficient glucocorticoid and thromboprophylaxis in the perioperative period. In addition, our patient developed hepatic infarction after surgical resection of the intestine. Then, the patient was supported by total parenteral nutrition. Our case report highlights the risk of microthrombi, which occurred in our patient after treatment of ectopic Cushing’s syndrome. Guidelines on thromboprophylaxis and/or antiplatelet therapy for Cushing’s syndrome are acutely needed.

Learning points:

  • The present case showed acute mesenteric thromboembolism and hepatic infarction after treatment of ectopic Cushing’s syndrome.

  • Patients with Cushing’s syndrome are at increased risk for thromboembolic events and increased morbidity and mortality.

  • An increase in thromboembolic risk has been observed during active disease, even in cases of remission and postoperatively in Cushing’s syndrome.

  • Thromboprophylaxis and antiplatelet therapy should be considered in treatment of glucocorticoid excess or glucocorticoid withdrawal.

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Cliona Small HRB Clinical Research Facility, Galway University Hospitals, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

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Aoife M Egan HRB Clinical Research Facility, Galway University Hospitals, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

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El Muntasir Elhadi HRB Clinical Research Facility, Galway University Hospitals, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

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Michael W O’Reilly HRB Clinical Research Facility, Galway University Hospitals, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

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Aine Cunningham HRB Clinical Research Facility, Galway University Hospitals, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

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Francis M Finucane HRB Clinical Research Facility, Galway University Hospitals, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

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Summary

We describe three patients presenting with diabetic ketoacidosis secondary to ketosis prone type 2, rather than type 1 diabetes. All patients were treated according to a standard DKA protocol, but were subsequently able to come off insulin therapy while maintaining good glycaemic control. Ketosis-prone type 2 diabetes (KPD) presenting with DKA has not been described previously in Irish patients. The absence of islet autoimmunity and evidence of endogenous beta cell function after resolution of DKA are well-established markers of KPD, but are not readily available in the acute setting. Although not emphasised in any current guidelines, we have found that a strong family history of type 2 diabetes and the presence of cutaneous markers of insulin resistance are strongly suggestive of KPD. These could be emphasised in future clinical practice guidelines.

Learning points:

  • Even in white patients, DKA is not synonymous with type 1 diabetes and autoimmune beta cell failure. KPD needs to be considered in all patients presenting with DKA, even though it will not influence their initial treatment.

  • Aside from markers of endogenous beta cell function and islet autoimmunity, which in any case are unlikely to be immediately available to clinicians, consideration of family history of type 2 diabetes and cutaneous markers of insulin resistance might help to identify those with KPD and are more readily apparent in the acute setting, though not emphasised in guidelines.

  • Consideration of KPD should never alter the management of the acute severe metabolic derangement of DKA, and phasing out of insulin therapy requires frequent attendance and meticulous and cautious surveillance by a team of experienced diabetes care providers.

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Marianne Geilswijk Departments of Clinical Genetics

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Lise Lotte Andersen Departments of Obstetrics
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Morten Frost Departments of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Klaus Brusgaard Departments of Clinical Genetics
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Henning Beck-Nielsen Departments of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Anja Lisbeth Frederiksen Departments of Clinical Genetics
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Dorte Møller Jensen Departments of Obstetrics
Departments of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Summary

Hypoglycemia during pregnancy can have serious health implications for both mother and fetus. Although not generally recommended in pregnancy, synthetic somatostatin analogues are used for the management of blood glucose levels in expectant hyperinsulinemic mothers. Recent reports suggest that octreotide treatment in pregnancy, as well as hypoglycemia in itself, may pose a risk of fetal growth restriction. During pregnancy, management of blood glucose levels in familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia thus forms a medical dilemma. We report on pregnancy outcomes in a woman with symptomatic familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, type 3. During the patient’s first pregnancy with a viable fetus octreotide treatment was instituted in gestational age 23 weeks to prevent severe hypoglycemic incidences. Fetal growth velocity declined, and at 37 weeks of gestation, intrauterine growth retardation was evident. During the second pregnancy with a viable fetus, blood glucose levels were managed through dietary intervention alone. Thus, the patient was advised to take small but frequent meals high in fiber and low in carbohydrates. Throughout pregnancy, no incidences of severe hypoglycemia occurred and fetal growth velocity was normal. We conclude that octreotide treatment during pregnancy may pose a risk of fetal growth restriction and warrants careful consideration. In some cases of familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, blood glucose levels can be successfully managed through diet only, also during pregnancy.

Learning points:

  • Gain-of-function mutations in GCK cause familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia.

  • Hypoglycemia during pregnancy may have serious health implications for mother and fetus.

  • Pregnancy with hyperinsulinism represents a medical dilemma as hypoglycemia as well as octreotide treatment may pose a risk of fetal growth restriction.

  • In some cases of familial hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, blood glucose levels can be successfully managed through diet only.

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Marcelo Maia Pinheiro Pharmaceutical Assistance Center of the State of Mato Grosso, Cuiaba, Brazil

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Felipe Moura Maia Pinheiro Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Cuiabá-UNIC, Cuiaba, Brazil

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Margareth Afonso Torres Laboratório Clinico do Hospital Israelita Albert Eistein, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

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Summary

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is a chronic disease characterized by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells and inadequate insulin production. Remission criteria in T1DM take into account serum levels of C-peptide and glycosylated hemoglobin, as well as the dose of insulin administered to the patient. However, remission of T1DM lasting longer than 1 year is rare. We describe here the cases of two young women who presented with positive glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) antibody and classic clinical manifestations of T1DM. Both patients had a prior history of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. They were initially treated with a basal-bolus regimen of insulin (glargine and lispro/glulisine). Once their blood glucose levels were controlled, they were started on oral sitagliptin 100 mg and vitamin D3 5000 IU daily. After this therapy, both patients achieved clinical diabetes remission for 4 years, along with a decrease in anti-GAD antibody levels. These benefits were probably associated with immunological effects of these medications. Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) in animal models deregulates Th1 immune response, increases secretion of Th2 cytokines, activates CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T-cells and prevents IL-17 production. Vitamin D3 also activates CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T-cells, and these medications combined can improve the immune response in patients with new-onset T1DM and probably promote sustained clinical remission.

Learning points:

  • The use of sitagliptin and vitamin D3 in patients with new-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) may help decrease the daily insulin requirement by delaying beta cell loss and improving endogenous insulin production.

  • The use of sitagliptin and vitamin D3 in new-onset T1DM could help regulate the imbalance between Th17 and Treg cells.

  • Age 14 years or above, absence of ketoacidosis and positive C-peptide levels in patients with T1DM are good criteria to predict prolonged T1DM remission.

  • The determination of anti-GAD antibodies and C-peptide levels could be helpful in the follow-up of patients in use of sitagliptin and vitamin D3, which could be associated with prolonged T1DM clinical remission.

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Cristina Alvarez-Escola Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain

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Jersy Cardenas-Salas Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain

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Summary

In patients with active acromegaly after pituitary surgery, somatostatin analogues are effective in controlling the disease and can even be curative in some cases. After treatment discontinuation, the likelihood of disease recurrence is high. However, a small subset of patients remains symptom-free after discontinuation, with normalized growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor (IGF1) levels. The characteristics of patients most likely to achieve sustained remission after treatment discontinuation are not well understood, although limited evidence suggests that sustained remission is more likely in patients with lower GH and IGF1 levels before treatment withdrawal, in those who respond well to low-dose treatment, in those without evidence of adenoma on an MRI scan and/or in patients who receive long-term treatment. In this report, we describe the case of a 56-year-old female patient treated with lanreotide Autogel for 11 years. Treatment was successfully discontinued, and the patient is currently disease-free on all relevant parameters (clinical, biochemical and tumour status). The successful outcome in this case adds to the small body of literature suggesting that some well-selected patients who receive long-term treatment with somatostatin analogues may achieve sustained remission.

Learning points:

  • The probability of disease recurrence is high after discontinuation of treatment with somatostatin analogues.

  • Current data indicate that remission after treatment discontinuation may be more likely in patients with low GH and IGF1 levels before treatment withdrawal, in those who respond well to low-dose treatment, in those without evidence of adenoma on MRI, and/or in patients receiving prolonged treatment.

  • This case report suggests that prolonged treatment with somatostatin analogues can be curative in carefully selected patients.

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