Diagnosis and Treatment > Investigation > Renin (blood)

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Isabella Lupi Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Alessandro Brancatella Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Mirco Cosottini Neuroradiology, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Nicola Viola Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Giulia Lanzolla Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Daniele Sgrò Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Giulia Di Dalmazi Section of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, Ce.S.I-Me.T., “G.D’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy

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Francesco Latrofa Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Patrizio Caturegli Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Maryland, USA

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Claudio Marcocci Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

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Summary

Programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death protein ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4/B7 (CTLA-4/B7) pathways are key regulators in T-cell activation and tolerance. Nivolumab, pembrolizumab (PD-1 inhibitors), atezolizumab (PD-L1 inhibitor) and ipilimumab (CTLA-4 inhibitor) are monoclonal antibodies approved for treatment of several advanced cancers. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs)-related hypophysitis is described more frequently in patients treated with anti-CTLA-4; however, recent studies reported an increasing prevalence of anti-PD-1/PD-L1-induced hypophysitis which also exhibits slightly different clinical features. We report our experience on hypophysitis induced by anti-PD-1/anti-PD-L1 treatment. We present four cases, diagnosed in the past 12 months, of hypophysitis occurring in two patients receiving anti-PD-1, in one patient receiving anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 combined therapy and in one patient receiving anti-PD-L1. In this case series, timing, clinical presentation and association with other immune-related adverse events appeared to be extremely variable; central hypoadrenalism and hyponatremia were constantly detected although sellar magnetic resonance imaging did not reveal specific signs of pituitary inflammation. These differences highlight the complexity of ICI-related hypophysitis and the existence of different mechanisms of action leading to heterogeneity of clinical presentation in patients receiving immunotherapy.

Learning points:

  • PD-1/PD-L1 blockade can induce hypophysitis with a different clinical presentation when compared to CTLA-4 blockade.

  • Diagnosis of PD-1/PD-L1 induced hypophysitis is mainly made on clinical grounds and sellar MRI does not show radiological abnormalities.

  • Hyponatremia due to acute secondary adrenal insufficiency is often the principal sign of PD-1/PD-L1-induced hypophysitis and can be masked by other symptoms due to oncologic disease.

  • PD-1/PD-L1-induced hypophysitis can present as an isolated manifestation of irAEs or be in association with other autoimmune diseases

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Elke Thijs Internal Medicine, University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium

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Katrien Wierckx Endocrinology, OLV Hospital, Aalst, Belgium

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Stefaan Vandecasteele Nephrology – Infectious Diseases, A.Z.-Sint Jan, Bruges, Belgium

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Annick Van den Bruel Endocrinology, A.Z.-Sint Jan, Bruges, Belgium

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Summary

A 42-year-old man with complaints of muscle soreness and an increased pigmentation of the skin was referred because of a suspicion of adrenal insufficiency. His adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels indicated a primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) and treatment with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone was initiated. An etiological workup, including an assessment for anti-adrenal antibodies, very long-chain fatty acids, 17-OH progesterone levels and catecholamine secretion, showed no abnormalities. 18Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/CT showed bilateral enlargement of the adrenal glands and bilateral presence of an adrenal nodule, with 18fluorodeoxyglucose accumulation. A positive tuberculin test and positive family history of tuberculosis were found, and tuberculostatic drugs were initiated. During the treatment with the tuberculostatic drugs the patient again developed complaints of adrenal insufficiency, due to insufficient dosage of hydrocortisone because of increased metabolism of hydrocortisone.

Learning points:

  • Shrinkage of the adrenal nodules following tuberculostatic treatment supports adrenal tuberculosis being the common aetiology.

  • The tuberculostatic drug rifampicin is a CYP3A4 inducer, increasing the metabolism of hydrocortisone. Increase the hydrocortisone dosage upon initiation of rifampicin in case of (adrenal) tuberculosis.

  • A notification on the Addison’s emergency pass could be considered to heighten physician’s and patients awareness of hydrocortisone drug interactions.

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Pedro Marques Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, West Smithfield, London, UK

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Nicola Tufton Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, West Smithfield, London, UK

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Satya Bhattacharya Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery Unit, The Royal London Hospital, London, UK

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Mark Caulfield Clinical Pharmacology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK

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Scott A Akker Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, West Smithfield, London, UK

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Summary

Mineralocorticoid hypertension is most often caused by autonomous overproduction of aldosterone, but excess of other mineralocorticoid precursors can lead to a similar presentation. 11-Deoxycorticosterone (DOC) excess, which can occur in 11-β hydroxylase or 17-α hydroxylase deficiencies, in DOC-producing adrenocortical tumours or in patients taking 11-β hydroxylase inhibitors, may cause mineralocorticoid hypertension. We report a 35-year-old woman who in the third trimester of pregnancy was found to have a large adrenal mass on routine obstetric ultrasound. On referral to our unit, persistent hypertension and long-standing hypokalaemia was noted, despite good compliance with multiple antihypertensives. Ten years earlier, she had hypertension noted in pregnancy which had persisted after delivery. A MRI scan confirmed the presence of a 12 cm adrenal mass and biochemistry revealed high levels of DOC and low/normal renin, aldosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone, with normal catecholamine levels. The patient was treated with antihypertensives until obstetric delivery, following which she underwent an adrenalectomy. Histology confirmed a large adrenal cortical neoplasm of uncertain malignant potential. Postoperatively, blood pressure and serum potassium normalised, and the antihypertensive medication was stopped. Over 10 years of follow-up, she remains asymptomatic with normal DOC measurements. This case should alert clinicians to the possibility of a diagnosis of a DOC-producing adrenal tumours in patients with adrenal nodules and apparent mineralocorticoid hypertension in the presence of low or normal levels of aldosterone. The associated diagnostic and management challenges are discussed.

Learning points:

  • Hypermineralocorticoidism is characterised by hypertension, volume expansion and hypokalaemic alkalosis and is most commonly due to overproduction of aldosterone. However, excess of other mineralocorticoid products, such as DOC, lead to the same syndrome but with normal or low aldosterone levels.

  • The differential diagnosis of resistant hypertension with low renin and low/normal aldosterone includes congenital adrenal hyperplasia, syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess, Cushing’s syndrome, Liddle’s syndrome and 11-deoxycorticosterone-producing tumours.

  • DOC is one intermediate product in the mineralocorticoid synthesis with weaker activity than aldosterone. However, marked DOC excess seen in 11-β hydroxylase or 17-α hydroxylase deficiencies in DOC-producing adrenocortical tumours or in patients taking 11-β hydroxylase inhibitors, may cause mineralocorticoid hypertension.

  • Excessive production of DOC in adrenocortical tumours has been attributed to reduced activity of the enzymes 11-β hydroxylase and 17-α hydroxylase and increased activity of 21-α hydroxylase.

  • The diagnosis of DOC-producing adrenal tumours is challenging because of its rarity and poor availability of DOC laboratory assays.

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Benedetta Zampetti Endocrinology Niguarda Hospital, Galeazzi Institute IRCCS, Milan, Italy

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Roberto Attanasio Endocrinology, Galeazzi Institute IRCCS, Milan, Italy

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Renato Cozzi Endocrinology Niguarda Hospital, Galeazzi Institute IRCCS, Milan, Italy

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Summary

A 69-year-old male was admitted for severe hyponatremia disclosed after an accidental fall. He was anticoagulated from 2 months after the implantation of a biologic aortic valve prosthesis. The work-up disclosed adrenal failure and MRI showed bilateral adrenal hemorrhage. Clinical picture and lab parameters normalized quickly after the appropriate replacement treatment. Anticoagulation excess should be added to the list of drugs potentially causing hyponatremia.

Learning points:

  • Hyponatremia requires a complete and timely workup in order to start an appropriate treatment for the improvement of clinical conditions.

  • History is crucial: a detailed list of drugs potentially causing hyponatremia should be collected. Anticoagulants should be added to the list, mostly in the event of excessive anticoagulation.

  • Intra-adrenal hemorrhage is a rare cause of hyponatremia and adrenal failure.

  • The ACTH test is still the gold standard for the diagnosis of hypoadrenalism.

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Theresa Penger Divisions of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Andrea Albrecht Divisions of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Michaela Marx Divisions of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Daniel Stachel Pediatric Hematology & Oncology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Markus Metzler Pediatric Hematology & Oncology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Helmuth G Dörr Divisions of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Summary

We report on a boy of Albanian descent with the history of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML). JMML was diagnosed at the age of 17 months and treated by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). At the age of 14.3 years, about 12 years after HSCT, he was hospitalized with an adrenal crisis. Hormone findings were consistent with primary adrenal insufficiency. Autoimmune adrenalitis was confirmed by positive autoantibodies against 21-hydroxylase and adrenal tissue. Since autoimmune Hashimoto thyroiditis was already known from the age of 9 years, we assume that both diseases are part of the spectrum of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS) type 2. APS type 2 is a rare endocrine disease characterized by Addison’s disease along with autoimmune thyroid disease and/or type 1 diabetes.

Learning points:

  • Endocrine sequelae after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are common and can develop over a long period.

  • Primary adrenal insufficiency after HSCT is absolutely rare.

  • The combination of adrenal autoimmune disease and Hashimoto thyroiditis is consistent with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2.

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Diana Oliveira Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Department, Coimbra Hospital and University Center, Coimbra, Portugal

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Adriana Lages Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Department, Coimbra Hospital and University Center, Coimbra, Portugal

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Sandra Paiva Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Department, Coimbra Hospital and University Center, Coimbra, Portugal

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Francisco Carrilho Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Department, Coimbra Hospital and University Center, Coimbra, Portugal

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Summary

Addison’s disease, or primary adrenocortical insufficiency, is a long-term, potentially severe, rare endocrine disorder. In pregnancy, it is even rarer. We report the case of a 30-year-old pregnant patient with Addison’s disease, referred to Obstetrics-Endocrinology specialty consult at 14 weeks gestation. She had been to the emergency department of her local hospital various times during the first trimester presenting with a clinical scenario suggestive of glucocorticoid under-replacement (nausea, persistent vomiting and hypotension), but this was interpreted as normal pregnancy symptoms. Hydrocortisone dose was adjusted, and the patient maintained regular follow-up. No complications were reported for the remainder of gestation and delivery. Pregnant patients with Addison’s disease should be monitored during gestation and in the peripartum period by multidisciplinary teams. Adjustments in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid replacement therapy are often necessary, and monitoring should be based mainly on clinical findings, which becomes increasingly difficult during pregnancy. Patient education and specialized monitoring are key to avoiding complications from under- or over-replacement therapy in this period.

Learning points:

  • An increase in glucocorticoid replacement dose is expected to be necessary during pregnancy in a woman with Addison’s disease.

  • Patient education regarding steroid cover and symptoms of acute adrenal crisis are fundamental.

  • Monitoring in this period is challenging and remains mainly clinical.

  • The increase in hydrocortisone dose often obviates the need to increase fludrocortisone dose.

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Lukas Burget Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cantonal Hospital Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland

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Laura Audí Parera Pediatric Endocrinology Research Unit, Vall d`Hebron, Institut de Recerca, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain

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Monica Fernandez-Cancio Pediatric Endocrinology Research Unit, Vall d`Hebron, Institut de Recerca, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain

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Rolf Gräni Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cantonal Hospital Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland

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Christoph Henzen Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cantonal Hospital Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland

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Christa E Flück Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Bern University Children’s Hospital and Department of BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

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Summary

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) is a key protein for the intracellular transport of cholesterol to the mitochondrium in endocrine organs (e.g. adrenal gland, ovaries, testes) and essential for the synthesis of all steroid hormones. Several mutations have been described and the clinical phenotype varies strongly and may be grouped into classic lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia (LCAH), in which all steroidogenesis is disrupted, and non-classic LCAH, which resembles familial glucocorticoid deficiency (FGD), which affects predominantly adrenal functions. Classic LCAH is characterized by early and potentially life-threatening manifestation of primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) with electrolyte disturbances and 46,XY disorder of sex development (DSD) in males as well as lack of pubertal development in both sexes. Non-classic LCAH manifests usually later in life with PAI. Nevertheless, life-long follow-up of gonadal function is warranted. We describe a 26-year-old female patient who was diagnosed with PAI early in life without detailed diagnostic work-up. At the age of 14 months, she presented with hyperpigmentation, elevated ACTH and low cortisol levels. As her older brother was diagnosed with PAI two years earlier, she was put on hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone replacement therapy before an Addisonian crisis occurred. Upon review of her case in adulthood, consanguinity was noted in the family. Genetic analysis for PAI revealed a homozygous mutation in the STAR gene (c.562C>T, p.Arg188Cys) in both siblings. This mutation has been previously described in non-classic LCAH. This case illustrates that early onset, familial PAI is likely due to autosomal recessive genetic mutations in known genes causing PAI.

Learning points:

  • In childhood-onset PAI, a genetic cause is most likely, especially in families with consanguinity.

  • Adult patients with an etiologically unsolved PAI should be reviewed repeatedly and genetic work-up should be considered.

  • Knowing the exact genetic diagnosis in PAI is essential for genetic counselling and may allow disease-specific treatment.

  • Young men and women with NCLAH due to homozygous STAR Arg188Cys mutation should be investigated for their gonadal function as hypogonadism and infertility might occur during puberty or in early adulthood.

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Charlotte Boughton Endocrinology Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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David Taylor Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Lea Ghataore Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Norman Taylor Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Benjamin C Whitelaw Endocrinology Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Summary

We describe severe hypokalaemia and hypertension due to a mineralocorticoid effect in a patient with myelodysplastic syndrome taking posaconazole as antifungal prophylaxis. Two distinct mechanisms due to posaconazole are identified: inhibition of 11β hydroxylase leading to the accumulation of the mineralocorticoid hormone 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC) and secondly, inhibition of 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11βHSD2), as demonstrated by an elevated serum cortisol-to-cortisone ratio. The effects were ameliorated by spironolactone. We also suggest that posaconazole may cause cortisol insufficiency. Patients taking posaconazole should therefore be monitored for hypokalaemia, hypertension and symptoms of hypocortisolaemia, at the onset of treatment and on a monthly basis. Treatment with mineralocorticoid antagonists (spironolactone or eplerenone), supplementation of glucocorticoids (e.g. hydrocortisone) or dose reduction or cessation of posaconazole should all be considered as management strategies.

Learning points:

  • Combined hypertension and hypokalaemia are suggestive of mineralocorticoid excess; further investigation is appropriate.

  • If serum aldosterone is suppressed, then further investigation to assess for an alternative mineralocorticoid is appropriate, potentially using urine steroid profiling and/or serum steroid panelling.

  • Posaconazole can cause both hypokalaemia and hypertension, and we propose that this is due to two mechanisms – both 11β hydroxylase inhibition and 11β HSD2 inhibition.

  • Posaconazole treatment may lead to cortisol insufficiency, which may require treatment; however, in this clinical case, the effect was mild.

  • First-line treatment of this presentation would likely be use of a mineralocorticoid antagonist.

  • Patients taking posaconazole should be monitored for hypertension and hypokalaemia on initiation and monthly thereafter.

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Judith Gerards Endocrinology in Charlottenburg

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Michael M Ritter Diabetology and Endocrinology, HELIOS Klinikum Berlin-Buch, Berlin, Germany

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Elke Kaminsky Praxis für Humangenetik

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Andreas Gal Bioglobe GmbH, Hamburg, Germany

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Wolfgang Hoeppner Bioglobe GmbH, Hamburg, Germany

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Marcus Quinkler Endocrinology in Charlottenburg

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Summary

DAX1 (NR0B1) is an orphan nuclear receptor, which plays an important role in development and function of the adrenal glands and gonads. Mutations in DAX1 cause X-linked adrenal hypoplasia congenita (X-linked AHC), which is characterized by adrenal insufficiency (AI) and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HHG). Affected boys present with adrenal failure usually in childhood and, later in life, with delayed puberty. However, patients with a late-onset form of X-linked AHC have also been described in the past years. We report a male patient who presented with symptoms of an adrenal crisis at the age of 38 years and was later diagnosed with HHG. Family history was positive with several male relatives diagnosed with AI and compatible with the assumed X-chromosomal inheritance of the trait. Direct sequencing of DAX1 of the patient revealed a hemizygous cytosine-to-thymine substitution at nucleotide 64 in exon 1, which creates a novel nonsense mutation (p.(Gln22*)). In order to compare the clinical presentation of the patient to that of other patients with X-linked AHC, we searched the electronic database MEDLINE (PubMed) and found reports of nine other cases with delayed onset of X-linked AHC. In certain cases, genotype–phenotype correlation could be assumed.

Learning points:

  • X-linked AHC is a rare disease characterized by primary AI and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HHG). The full-blown clinical picture is seen usually only in males with a typical onset in childhood.

  • Patients with a late-onset form of X-linked AHC have also been described recently. Being aware of this late-onset form might help to reach an early diagnosis and prevent life-threatening adrenal crises.

  • Adult men with primary AI of unknown etiology should be investigated for HHG. Detecting a DAX1 mutation may confirm the clinical diagnosis of late-onset X-linked AHC.

  • In relatives of patients with genetically confirmed X-linked AHC, targeted mutation analysis may help to identify family members at risk and asymptomatic carriers, and discuss conscious family planning.

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Jasmeet Kaur Laboratory of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Anderson Cancer Institute, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA

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Alan M Rice Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Augusta University School of Medicine, Augusta, Georgia, USA
Neonatology Intensive Care Unit, Memorial University Medical Center, Georgia, USA

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Elizabeth O’Connor Laboratory of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Savannah, Georgia, USA

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Anil Piya Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Neonatology Intensive Care Unit, Memorial University Medical Center, Georgia, USA

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Bradley Buckler Neonatology Intensive Care Unit, Memorial University Medical Center, Georgia, USA

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Himangshu S Bose Laboratory of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Anderson Cancer Institute, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA

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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is caused by mutations in cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1 and old name, SCC). Errors in cholesterol side chain cleavage by the mitochondrial resident CYP11A1 results in an inadequate amount of pregnenolone production. This study was performed to evaluate the cause of salt-losing crisis and possible adrenal failure in a pediatric patient whose mother had a history of two previous stillbirths and loss of another baby within a week of birth. CAH can appear in any population in any region of the world. The study was conducted at Memorial University Medical Center and Mercer University School of Medicine. The patient was admitted to Pediatric Endocrinology Clinic due to salt-losing crisis and possible adrenal failure. The patient had CAH, an autosomal recessive disease, due to a novel mutation in exon 5 of the CYP11A1 gene, which generated a truncated protein of 286 amino acids compared with wild-type protein that has 521 amino acids (W286X). Although unrelated, both parents are carriers. Mitochondrial protein import analysis of the mutant CYP11A1 in steroidogenic MA-10 cells showed that the protein is imported in a similar fashion as observed for the wild-type protein and was cleaved to a shorter fragment. However, mutant’s activity was 10% of that obtained for the wild-type protein in non-steroidogenic COS-1 cells. In a patient of Mexican descent, a homozygous CYP11A1 mutation caused CAH, suggesting that this disease is not geographically restricted even in a homogeneous population.

Learning points:

  • Novel mutation in CYP11A1 causes CAH;

  • This is a pure population from Central Mexico;

  • Novel mutation created early truncated protein.

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