Diagnosis and Treatment > Investigation > Bicarbonate

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Lukas Burget Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cantonal Hospital Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland

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Laura Audí Parera Pediatric Endocrinology Research Unit, Vall d`Hebron, Institut de Recerca, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain

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Monica Fernandez-Cancio Pediatric Endocrinology Research Unit, Vall d`Hebron, Institut de Recerca, CIBERER, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Barcelona, Spain

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Rolf Gräni Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cantonal Hospital Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland

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Christoph Henzen Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cantonal Hospital Lucerne, Lucerne, Switzerland

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Christa E Flück Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Bern University Children’s Hospital and Department of BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

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Summary

Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) is a key protein for the intracellular transport of cholesterol to the mitochondrium in endocrine organs (e.g. adrenal gland, ovaries, testes) and essential for the synthesis of all steroid hormones. Several mutations have been described and the clinical phenotype varies strongly and may be grouped into classic lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia (LCAH), in which all steroidogenesis is disrupted, and non-classic LCAH, which resembles familial glucocorticoid deficiency (FGD), which affects predominantly adrenal functions. Classic LCAH is characterized by early and potentially life-threatening manifestation of primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI) with electrolyte disturbances and 46,XY disorder of sex development (DSD) in males as well as lack of pubertal development in both sexes. Non-classic LCAH manifests usually later in life with PAI. Nevertheless, life-long follow-up of gonadal function is warranted. We describe a 26-year-old female patient who was diagnosed with PAI early in life without detailed diagnostic work-up. At the age of 14 months, she presented with hyperpigmentation, elevated ACTH and low cortisol levels. As her older brother was diagnosed with PAI two years earlier, she was put on hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone replacement therapy before an Addisonian crisis occurred. Upon review of her case in adulthood, consanguinity was noted in the family. Genetic analysis for PAI revealed a homozygous mutation in the STAR gene (c.562C>T, p.Arg188Cys) in both siblings. This mutation has been previously described in non-classic LCAH. This case illustrates that early onset, familial PAI is likely due to autosomal recessive genetic mutations in known genes causing PAI.

Learning points:

  • In childhood-onset PAI, a genetic cause is most likely, especially in families with consanguinity.

  • Adult patients with an etiologically unsolved PAI should be reviewed repeatedly and genetic work-up should be considered.

  • Knowing the exact genetic diagnosis in PAI is essential for genetic counselling and may allow disease-specific treatment.

  • Young men and women with NCLAH due to homozygous STAR Arg188Cys mutation should be investigated for their gonadal function as hypogonadism and infertility might occur during puberty or in early adulthood.

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Carine Ghassan Richa Department of Endocrinology, Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon
Lebanese University, Hadath, Lebanon

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Khadija Jamal Saad Department of Endocrinology, Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon
Lebanese University, Hadath, Lebanon

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Georges Habib Halabi Department of Endocrinology, Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon
Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon

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Elie Mekhael Gharios Department of Endocrinology, Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon
Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon

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Fadi Louis Nasr Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon

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Marie Tanios Merheb Department of Endocrinology, Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon
Mount Lebanon Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon

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Summary

The objective of this study is to report three cases of paraneoplastic or ectopic Cushing syndrome, which is a rare phenomenon of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-dependent Cushing syndrome. Three cases are reported in respect of clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment in addition to relevant literature review. The results showed that ectopic ACTH secretion can be associated with different types of neoplasm most common of which are bronchial carcinoid tumors, which are slow-growing, well-differentiated neoplasms with a favorable prognosis and small-cell lung cancer, which are poorly differentiated tumors with a poor outcome. The latter is present in two out of three cases and in the remaining one, primary tumor could not be localized, representing a small fraction of patients with paraneoplastic Cushing. Diagnosis is established in the setting of high clinical suspicion by documenting an elevated cortisol level, ACTH and doing dexamethasone suppression test. Treatment options include management of the primary tumor by surgery and chemotherapy and treating Cushing syndrome. Prognosis is poor in SCLC. We concluded that in front of a high clinical suspicion, ectopic Cushing syndrome diagnosis should be considered, and identification of the primary tumor is essential.

Learning points:

  • Learning how to suspect ectopic Cushing syndrome and confirm it among all the causes of excess cortisol.

  • Distinguish between occult and severe ectopic Cushing syndrome and etiology.

  • Providing the adequate treatment of the primary tumor as well as for the cortisol excess.

  • Prognosis depends on the differentiation and type of the primary malignancy.

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Charlotte Boughton Endocrinology Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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David Taylor Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Lea Ghataore Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Norman Taylor Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Benjamin C Whitelaw Endocrinology Department of Clinical Biochemistry (Viapath), King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Summary

We describe severe hypokalaemia and hypertension due to a mineralocorticoid effect in a patient with myelodysplastic syndrome taking posaconazole as antifungal prophylaxis. Two distinct mechanisms due to posaconazole are identified: inhibition of 11β hydroxylase leading to the accumulation of the mineralocorticoid hormone 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC) and secondly, inhibition of 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11βHSD2), as demonstrated by an elevated serum cortisol-to-cortisone ratio. The effects were ameliorated by spironolactone. We also suggest that posaconazole may cause cortisol insufficiency. Patients taking posaconazole should therefore be monitored for hypokalaemia, hypertension and symptoms of hypocortisolaemia, at the onset of treatment and on a monthly basis. Treatment with mineralocorticoid antagonists (spironolactone or eplerenone), supplementation of glucocorticoids (e.g. hydrocortisone) or dose reduction or cessation of posaconazole should all be considered as management strategies.

Learning points:

  • Combined hypertension and hypokalaemia are suggestive of mineralocorticoid excess; further investigation is appropriate.

  • If serum aldosterone is suppressed, then further investigation to assess for an alternative mineralocorticoid is appropriate, potentially using urine steroid profiling and/or serum steroid panelling.

  • Posaconazole can cause both hypokalaemia and hypertension, and we propose that this is due to two mechanisms – both 11β hydroxylase inhibition and 11β HSD2 inhibition.

  • Posaconazole treatment may lead to cortisol insufficiency, which may require treatment; however, in this clinical case, the effect was mild.

  • First-line treatment of this presentation would likely be use of a mineralocorticoid antagonist.

  • Patients taking posaconazole should be monitored for hypertension and hypokalaemia on initiation and monthly thereafter.

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Joseph Cerasuolo Department of Neurology and Department of Internal Medicine, St. Vincent Hospital, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

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Anthony Izzo Department of Neurology and Department of Internal Medicine, St. Vincent Hospital, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA

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Summary

Acute hyperglycemia has been shown to cause cognitive impairments in animal models. There is growing appreciation of the numerous effects of hyperglycemia on neuronal function as well as blood–brain barrier function. In humans, hypoglycemia is well known to cause cognitive deficits acutely, but hyperglycemia has been less well studied. We present a case of selective neurocognitive deficits in the setting of acute hyperglycemia. A 60-year-old man was admitted to the hospital for an episode of acute hyperglycemia in the setting of newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus precipitated by steroid use. He was managed with insulin therapy and discharged home, and later, presented with complaints of memory impairment. Deficits included impairment in his declarative and working memory, to the point of significant impairment in his overall functioning. The patient had no structural lesions on MRI imaging of the brain or other systemic illnesses to explain his specific deficits. We suggest that his acute hyperglycemia may have caused neurological injury, and may be responsible for our patient’s memory complaints.

Learning points:

  • Acute hyperglycemia has been associated with poor outcomes in several different central nervous system injuries including cerebrovascular accident and hypoxic injury.

  • Hyperglycemia is responsible for accumulation of reactive oxygen species in the brain, resulting in advanced glycosylated end products and a proinflammatory response that may lead to cellular injury.

  • Further research is needed to define the impact of both acute and chronic hyperglycemia on cognitive impairment and memory.

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S Hussain Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Newham University Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

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S Keat Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Newham University Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

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S V Gelding Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Newham University Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

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Summary

We describe the case of an African woman who was diagnosed with ketosis-prone diabetes with diabetes-associated autoantibodies, after being admitted for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) precipitated by her first presentation of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). She had a seven-year history of recurrent gestational diabetes (GDM) not requiring insulin therapy, with return to normoglycaemia after each pregnancy. This might have suggested that she had now developed type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the diagnosis of SLE prompted testing for an autoimmune aetiology for the diabetes, and she was found to have a very high titre of GAD antibodies. Typical type 1 diabetes (T1D) was thought unlikely due to the long preceding history of GDM. Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (LADA) was considered, but ruled out as she required insulin therapy from diagnosis. The challenge of identifying the type of diabetes when clinical features overlap the various diabetes categories is discussed. This is the first report of autoimmune ketosis-prone diabetes (KPD) presenting with new onset of SLE.

Learning points:

  • DKA may be the first presentation of a multi-system condition and a precipitating cause should always be sought, particularly in women with a history of GDM or suspected T2D.

  • All women with GDM should undergo repeat glucose tolerance testing postpartum to exclude frank diabetes, even when post-delivery capillary blood glucose (CBG) tests are normal. They should also be advised to continue CBG monitoring during acute illness in case of new onset diabetes.

  • KPD comprises a spectrum of diabetes syndromes that present with DKA, but subsequently have a variable course depending on the presence or absence of beta cell failure and/or diabetes autoantibodies.

  • KPD should be considered in a patient with presumed T2D presenting with DKA, especially if there is a personal or family history of autoimmune diabetes.

  • LADA should be suspected in adults presumed to have T2D, who do not require insulin therapy for at least six months after diagnosis and have anti-GAD antibodies.

  • Patients with autoimmune diabetes have an increased risk of other autoimmune diseases and screening for thyroid, parietal cell, coeliac and antinuclear antibodies should be considered.

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Swapna Talluri Internal Medicine

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Raghu Charumathi Internal Medicine

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Muhammad Khan Internal Medicine

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Kerri Kissell Endocrinology, Guthrie Robert Packer Hospital, Sayre, Pennsylvania, USA

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Summary

Central pontine myelinolysis (CPM) usually occurs with rapid correction of severe chronic hyponatremia. Despite the pronounced fluctuations in serum osmolality, CPM is rarely seen in diabetics. This is a case report of CPM associated with hyperglycemia. A 45-year-old non-smoking and non-alcoholic African American male with past medical history of type 2 diabetes, hypertension, stage V chronic kidney disease and hypothyroidism presented with a two-week history of intermittent episodes of gait imbalance, slurred speech and inappropriate laughter. Physical examination including complete neurological assessment and fundoscopic examination were unremarkable. Laboratory evaluation was significant for serum sodium: 140 mmol/L, potassium: 3.9 mmol/L, serum glucose: 178 mg/dL and serum osmolality: 317 mosmol/kg. His ambulatory blood sugars fluctuated between 100 and 600 mg/dL in the six weeks prior to presentation, without any significant or rapid changes in his corrected serum sodium or other electrolyte levels. MRI brain demonstrated a symmetric lesion in the central pons with increased signal intensity on T2- and diffusion-weighted images. After neurological consultation and MRI confirmation, the patient was diagnosed with CPM secondary to hyperosmolar hyperglycemia. Eight-week follow-up with neurology was notable for near-complete resolution of symptoms. This case report highlights the importance of adequate blood glucose control in diabetics. Physicians should be aware of complications like CPM, which can present atypically in diabetics and is only diagnosed in the presence of a high index of clinical suspicion.

Learning points:

  • Despite the pronounced fluctuations in serum osmolality, central pontine myelinolysis (CPM) is rarely seen in diabetics. This case report of CPM associated with hyperglycemia highlights the importance of adequate blood glucose control in diabetics.

  • Physicians should be aware of complications like CPM in diabetics.

  • CPM can present atypically in diabetics and is only diagnosed in the presence of a high index of clinical suspicion.

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Hodaka Yamada Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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Shunsuke Funazaki Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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Masafumi Kakei Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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Kazuo Hara Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Jichi Medical University Saitama Medical Center, Saitama, Japan

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San-e Ishikawa Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, International University of Health and Welfare Hospital, Nasushiobara, Japan

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Summary

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a critical complication of type 1 diabetes associated with water and electrolyte disorders. Here, we report a case of DKA with extreme hyperkalemia (9.0 mEq/L) in a patient with type 1 diabetes on hemodialysis. He had a left frontal cerebral infarction resulting in inability to manage his continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion pump. Electrocardiography showed typical changes of hyperkalemia, including absent P waves, prolonged QRS interval and tented T waves. There was no evidence of total body water deficit. After starting insulin and rapid hemodialysis, the serum potassium level was normalized. Although DKA may present with hypokalemia, rapid hemodialysis may be necessary to resolve severe hyperkalemia in a patient with renal failure.

Learning points:

  • Patients with type 1 diabetes on hemodialysis may develop ketoacidosis because of discontinuation of insulin treatment.

  • Patients on hemodialysis who develop ketoacidosis may have hyperkalemia because of anuria.

  • Absolute insulin deficit alters potassium distribution between the intracellular and extracellular space, and anuria abolishes urinary excretion of potassium.

  • Rapid hemodialysis along with intensive insulin therapy can improve hyperkalemia, while fluid infusions may worsen heart failure in patients with ketoacidosis who routinely require hemodialysis.

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Prashanth Rawla Department of Internal Medicine, Memorial Hospital of Martinsville and Henry County, Martinsville, Virginia, USA

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Anantha R Vellipuram Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, Texas, USA

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Sathyajit S Bandaru Senior Research Associate, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

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Jeffrey Pradeep Raj Department of Pharmacology, St John’s Medical College, Bangalore, India

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Summary

Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis (EDKA) is a clinical triad comprising increased anion gap metabolic acidosis, ketonemia or ketonuria and normal blood glucose levels <200 mg/dL. This condition is a diagnostic challenge as euglycemia masquerades the underlying diabetic ketoacidosis. Thus, a high clinical suspicion is warranted, and other diagnosis ruled out. Here, we present two patients on regular insulin treatment who were admitted with a diagnosis of EDKA. The first patient had insulin pump failure and the second patient had urinary tract infection and nausea, thereby resulting in starvation. Both of them were aggressively treated with intravenous fluids and insulin drip as per the protocol for the blood glucose levels till the anion gap normalized, and the metabolic acidosis reversed. This case series summarizes, in brief, the etiology, pathophysiology and treatment of EDKA.

Learning points:

  • Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis is rare.

  • Consider ketosis in patients with DKA even if their serum glucose levels are normal.

  • High clinical suspicion is required to diagnose EDKA as normal blood sugar levels masquerade the underlying DKA and cause a diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma.

  • Blood pH and blood or urine ketones should be checked in ill patients with diabetes regardless of blood glucose levels.

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Gordon Sloan Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospital, Sheffield, UK

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Amjad Ali Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospital, Sheffield, UK

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Jonathan Webster Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospital, Sheffield, UK

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Summary

Ketoacidosis occurring during lactation has been described infrequently. The condition is incompletely understood, but it appears to be associated with a combination of increased metabolic demands during lactation, reduction in carbohydrate intake and acute illness. We present a case of a 27-year-old woman, 8 weeks post-partum, who was exclusively breastfeeding her child whilst following a low carbohydrate diet. She developed gastroenteritis and was unable to tolerate an oral diet for several days. She presented with severe metabolic acidosis on admission with a blood 3-hydroxybutyrate of 5.4 mmol/L. She was treated with intravenous dextrose and intravenous sodium bicarbonate, and given dietary advice to increase her carbohydrate intake. She made a rapid and full recovery. We provide a summary of the common causes of ketoacidosis and compare our case with other presentations of lactation ketoacidosis.

Learning points:

  • Ketoacidosis in the lactating woman is a rare cause of raised anion gap metabolic acidosis.

  • Low carbohydrate intake, starvation, intercurrent illness or a combination of these factors could put breastfeeding women at risk of ketoacidosis.

  • Ketoacidosis in the lactating woman has been shown to resolve rapidly with sufficient carbohydrate intake and intravenous dextrose.

  • Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are essential because the condition is reported to be reversible with a low chance of recurrence with appropriate dietary advice.

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A Majid Paediatric Endocrinology, Southern District Health Board, Dunedin, New Zealand

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B J Wheeler Paediatric Endocrinology, Southern District Health Board, Dunedin, New Zealand
Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, University of Otago, Dunedin School of Medicine, Dunedin, New Zealand

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Summary

In clinical practice, seizures independent of hypoglycemia are observed in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) more frequently than expected by chance, suggesting a link. However, seizures during management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) have generally been considered a bad prognostic factor, and usually associated with well-known biochemical or neurological complications. We present the case of a 17-year-old girl with known T1DM managed for severe DKA complicated by hypocapnic seizure. We review the literature on this rare occurrence as well as outline other possible differentials to consider when faced with the alarming combination of DKA and seizure.

Learning points:

  • Seizures during DKA treatment require immediate management as well as evaluation to determine their underlying cause.

  • Their etiology is varied, but a lowered seizure threshold, electrolyte disturbances and serious neurological complications of DKA such as cerebral edema must all be considered.

  • Sudden severe hypocapnia may represent a rare contributor to seizure during the treatment of DKA.

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