Diagnosis and Treatment > Signs and Symptoms

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Haruhiko Yamazaki Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Kanagawa Cancer Center, Yokohama, Japan

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Hiroyuki Iwasaki Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Kanagawa Cancer Center, Yokohama, Japan

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Yoichiro Okubo Department of Pathology, Kanagawa Cancer Center, Yokohama, Japan

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Nobuyasu Suganuma Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Kanagawa Cancer Center, Yokohama, Japan

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Katsuhiko Masudo Department of Breast and Thyroid Surgery, Yokohama City University Medical Center, Yokohama, Japan

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Hirotaka Nakayama Department of Surgery, Yokohama City University School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan

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Yasushi Rino Department of Surgery, Yokohama City University School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan

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Munetaka Masuda Department of Surgery, Yokohama City University School of Medicine, Yokohama, Japan

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Summary

The objective this study is to report two cases of thyroid gland invasion by upper mediastinal carcinoma. Mediastinal tumors are uncommon and represent 3% of the tumors seen within the chest. In reports on mediastinal masses, the incidence of malignant lesions ranged from 25 to 49%. The thyroid gland can be directly invaded by surrounding organ cancers. We report these cases contrasting them to the case of a thyroid cancer with mediastinal lesions. Case 1 was a 73-year-old woman who was diagnosed with papillary thyroid carcinoma, and she underwent surgery and postoperative radioactive iodine. Case 2 was a 74-year-old man who was diagnosed with non-small-cell lung carcinoma, favor squamous cell carcinoma, and he underwent chemoradiotherapy. Case 3 was a 77-year-old man who was diagnosed a thymic carcinoma based on pathological findings and referred the patient to thoracic surgeons for surgical management. The images of the three cases were similar, and the differential diagnoses were difficult and required pathological examination. Primary thyroid carcinoma and invading carcinoma originating from the adjacent organs need to be distinguished because their prognoses and treatment strategies are different. It is important to properly diagnose them by images and pathological findings.

Learning points:

  • The thyroid gland in the anterior neck can be directly invaded by surrounding organ cancers.

  • Primary thyroid carcinoma and invading carcinoma originating from the adjacent organs need to be distinguished because their prognoses and treatment strategies are different.

  • It is important to properly diagnose by images and pathological findings.

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G Leksic Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine

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A M Alduk Department of Radiology, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

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V Molnar Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine

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A Haxhiu Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine

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A Balasko Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine

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N Knezevic Department of Urology, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

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T Dusek Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

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D Kastelan Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

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Summary

Primary aldosteronism (PA) is characterised by aldosterone hypersecretion and represents a common cause of secondary hypertension. During diagnostic evaluation, it is essential to determine the aetiology of PA since the treatment of unilateral and bilateral disease differs significantly. Adrenal vein sampling (AVS) has been implemented as a gold standard test for the diagnosis of PA subtype. However, due to the AVS complexity, costs and limited availability, many patients with PA are being treated based on the computed tomography (CT) findings. In this article, we present two patients with discrepant CT and AVS results, demonstrating that AVS is the only reliable method for localising the source of aldosterone excess.

Learning points:

  • CT is an unreliable method for distinguishing aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA) from bilateral adrenal hyperplasia (BAH).

  • CT can be misleading in defining lateralisation of the aldosterone excess in case of unilateral disease (APA).

  • AVS is the gold standard test for defining the PA subtype.

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Gemma White Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

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Nicola Tufton Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

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Scott A Akker Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK

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Summary

At least 40% of phaeochromocytomas and paraganglioma’s (PPGLs) are associated with an underlying genetic mutation. The understanding of the genetic landscape of these tumours has rapidly evolved, with 18 associated genes now identified. Among these, mutations in the subunits of succinate dehydrogenase complex (SDH) are the most common, causing around half of familial PPGL cases. Occurrence of PPGLs in carriers of SDHB, SDHC and SDHD subunit mutations has been long reported, but it is only recently that variants in the SDHA subunit have been linked to PPGL formation. Previously documented cases have, to our knowledge, only been found in isolated cases where pathogenic SDHA variants were identified retrospectively. We report the case of an asymptomatic suspected carotid body tumour found during surveillance screening in a 72-year-old female who is a known carrier of a germline SDHA pathogenic variant. To our knowledge, this is the first screen that detected PPGL found in a previously identified SDHA pathogenic variant carrier, during surveillance imaging. This finding supports the use of cascade genetic testing and surveillance screening in all carriers of a pathogenic SDHA variant.

Learning points:

  • SDH mutations are important causes of PPGL disease.

  • SDHA is much rarer compared to SDHB and SDHD mutations.

  • Pathogenicity and penetrance are yet to be fully determined in cases of SDHA-related PPGL.

  • Surveillance screening should be used for SDHA PPGL cases to identify recurrence, metastasis or metachronous disease.

  • Surveillance screening for SDH-related disease should be performed in identified carriers of a pathogenic SDHA variant.

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A Chinoy Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Royal Manchester Children’s Hospital, Manchester, UK
Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

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N B Wright Department of Paediatric Radiology, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Manchester, UK

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M Bone Department of General Paediatrics, Royal Manchester Children’s Hospital, Manchester, UK

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R Padidela Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Royal Manchester Children’s Hospital, Manchester, UK
Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

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Summary

Hypokalaemia at presentation of diabetic ketoacidosis is uncommon as insulin deficiency and metabolic acidosis shifts potassium extracellularly. However, hypokalaemia is a recognised complication of the management of diabetic ketoacidosis as insulin administration and correction of metabolic acidosis shifts potassium intracellularly. We describe the case of a 9-year-old girl with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes mellitus presenting in diabetic ketoacidosis, with severe hypokalaemia at presentation due to severe and prolonged emesis. After commencing management for her diabetic ketoacidosis, her serum sodium and osmolality increased rapidly. However, despite maximal potassium concentrations running through peripheral access, and multiple intravenous potassium ‘corrections’, her hypokalaemia persisted. Seventy two hours after presentation, she became drowsy and confused, with imaging demonstrating central pontine myelinolysis – a rare entity seldom seen in diabetic ketoacidosis management in children despite rapid shifts in serum sodium and osmolality. We review the literature associating central pontine myelinolysis with hypokalaemia and hypothesise as to how the hypokalaemia may have contributed to the development of central pontine myelinolysis. We also recommend an approach to the management of a child in diabetic ketoacidosis with hypokalaemia at presentation.

Learning points:

  • Hypokalaemia is a recognised complication of treatment of paediatric diabetic ketoacidosis that should be aggressively managed to prevent acute complications.

  • Central pontine myelinolysis is rare in children, and usually observed in the presence of rapid correction of hyponatraemia. However, there is observational evidence of an association between hypokalaemia and central pontine myelinolysis, potentially by priming the endothelial cell membrane to injury by lesser fluctuations in osmotic pressure.

  • Consider central pontine myelinolysis as a complication of the management of paediatric diabetic ketoacidosis in the presence of relevant symptoms with profound hypokalaemia and/or fluctuations in serum sodium levels.

  • We have suggested an approach to the management strategies of hypokalaemia in paediatric diabetic ketoacidosis which includes oral potassium supplements if tolerated, minimising the duration and the rate of insulin infusion and increasing the concentration of potassium intravenously (via central line if necessary).

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Jonathan Brown Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust, Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust, Brighton, UK

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Luqman Sardar Elderly Care, Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust, Brighton, UK

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Summary

A 68-year-old previously independent woman presented multiple times to hospital over the course of 3 months with a history of intermittent weakness, vacant episodes, word finding difficulty and reduced cognition. She was initially diagnosed with a TIA, and later with a traumatic subarachnoid haemorrhage following a fall; however, despite resolution of the haemorrhage, symptoms were ongoing and continued to worsen. Confusion screen blood tests showed no cause for the ongoing symptoms. More specialised investigations, such as brain imaging, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, electroencephalogram and serology also gave no clear diagnosis. The patient had a background of hypothyroidism, with plasma thyroid function tests throughout showing normal free thyroxine and a mildly raised thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). However plasma anti-thyroid peroxidise (TPO) antibody titres were very high. After discussion with specialists, it was felt she may have a rare and poorly understood condition known as Hashimoto’s encephalopathy (HE). After a trial with steroids, her symptoms dramatically improved and she was able to live independently again, something which would have been impossible at presentation.

Learning points:

  • In cases of subacute onset confusion where most other diagnoses have already been excluded, testing for anti-thyroid antibodies can identify patients potentially suffering from HE.

  • In these patients, and under the guidance of specialists, a trial of steroids can dramatically improve patient’s symptoms.

  • The majority of patients are euthyroid at the time of presentation, and so normal thyroid function tests should not prevent anti-thyroid antibodies being tested for.

  • Due to high titres of anti-thyroid antibodies being found in a small percentage of the healthy population, HE should be treated as a diagnosis of exclusion, particularly as treatment with steroids may potentially worsen the outcome in other causes of confusion, such as infection.

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Valeria de Miguel Departments of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nuclear Medicine

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Andrea Paissan Departments of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nuclear Medicine

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Patricio García Marchiñena Departments of Urology, Metabolism and Nuclear Medicine

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Alberto Jurado Departments of Urology, Metabolism and Nuclear Medicine

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Mariana Isola Pathology, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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José Alfie Hypertension Unit of Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

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Patricia Fainstein-Day Departments of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nuclear Medicine

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Summary

We present the case of a 25-year-old male with a history of neurofibromatosis type 1 and bilateral pheochromocytoma 4 years after kidney transplantation that was successfully treated with simultaneous bilateral posterior retroperitoneoscopic adrenalectomy.

Learning points:

  • Hypertensive patients with NF1 should always be screened for pheochromocytoma.

  • Pheochromocytoma is rarely associated with transplantation, but it must be ruled out in patients with genetic susceptibility.

  • Posterior retroperitoneoscopic adrenalectomy (PRA) allows more direct access to the adrenal glands, especially in patients with previous abdominal surgeries.

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Anne Marie Hannon Departments of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland

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Isolda Frizelle Departments of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland

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George Kaar Departments of Neurosurgery, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland

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Steven J Hunter Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast, UK

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Mark Sherlock Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

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Christopher J Thompson Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

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Domhnall J O’Halloran Departments of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland

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the Irish Pituitary Database Group
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Summary

Pregnancy in acromegaly is rare and generally safe, but tumour expansion may occur. Managing tumour expansion during pregnancy is complex, due to the potential complications of surgery and side effects of anti-tumoural medication. A 32-year-old woman was diagnosed with acromegaly at 11-week gestation. She had a large macroadenoma invading the suprasellar cistern. She developed bitemporal hemianopia at 20-week gestation. She declined surgery and was commenced on 100 µg subcutaneous octreotide tds, with normalisation of her visual fields after 2 weeks of therapy. She had a further deterioration in her visual fields at 24-week gestation, which responded to an increase in subcutaneous octreotide to 150 µg tds. Her vision remained stable for the remainder of the pregnancy. She was diagnosed with gestational diabetes at 14/40 and was commenced on basal bolus insulin regimen at 22/40 gestation. She otherwise had no obstetric complications. Foetal growth continued along the 50th centile throughout pregnancy. She underwent an elective caesarean section at 34/40, foetal weight was 3.2 kg at birth with an APGAR score of 9. The neonate was examined by an experienced neonatologist and there were no congenital abnormalities identified. She opted not to breastfeed and she is menstruating regularly post-partum. She was commenced on octreotide LAR 40 mg and referred for surgery. At last follow-up, 2 years post-partum, the infant has been developing normally. In conclusion, our case describes a first presentation of acromegaly in pregnancy and rescue of visual field loss with somatostatin analogue therapy.

Learning points:

  • Tumour expansion may occur in acromegaly during pregnancy.

  • Treatment options for tumour expansion in pregnancy include both medical and surgical options.

  • Somatostatin analogues may be a viable medical alternative to surgery in patients with tumour expansion during pregnancy.

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Ved Bhushan Arya Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Variety Club Children’s Hospital, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Jennifer Kalitsi Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Variety Club Children’s Hospital, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Ann Hickey Department of Neonatology, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Sarah E Flanagan Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Science, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

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Ritika R Kapoor Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Variety Club Children’s Hospital, King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Summary

Diazoxide is the first-line treatment for patients with hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia (HH). Approximately 50% of patients with HH are diazoxide resistant. However, marked diazoxide sensitivity resulting in severe hyperglycaemia is extremely uncommon and not reported previously in the context of HH due to HNF4A mutation. We report a novel observation of exceptional diazoxide sensitivity in a patient with HH due to HNF4A mutation. A female infant presented with severe persistent neonatal hypoglycaemia and was diagnosed with HH. Standard doses of diazoxide (5 mg/kg/day) resulted in marked hyperglycaemia (maximum blood glucose 21.6 mmol/L) necessitating discontinuation of diazoxide. Lower dose of diazoxide (1.5 mg/kg/day) successfully controlled HH in the proband, which was subsequently confirmed to be due to a novel HNF4A mutation. At 3 years of age, the patient maintains age appropriate fasting tolerance on low dose diazoxide (1.8 mg/kg/day) and has normal development. Diagnosis in proband’s mother and maternal aunt, both of whom carried HNF4A mutation and had been diagnosed with presumed type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, respectively, was revised to maturity-onset diabetes of young (MODY). Proband’s 5-year-old maternal cousin, also carrier of HNF4A mutation, had transient neonatal hypoglycaemia. To conclude, patients with HH due to HNF4A mutation may require lower diazoxide than other group of patients with HH. Educating the families about the risk of marked hyperglycaemia with diazoxide is essential. The clinical phenotype of HNF4A mutation can be extremely variable.

Learning points:

  • Awareness of risk of severe hyperglycaemia with diazoxide is important and patients/families should be accordingly educated.

  • Some patients with HH due to HNF4A mutations may require lower than standard doses of diazoxide.

  • The clinical phenotype of HNF4A mutation can be extremely variable.

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Aisling McCarthy University Hospital Galway, Galway, Ireland

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Sophie Howarth Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Serena Khoo Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Julia Hale Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Sue Oddy Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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David Halsall Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Brian Fish Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Sashi Mariathasan Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Katrina Andrews East Anglian Medical Genetics Service, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK

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Samson O Oyibo Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Peterborough City Hospital, North West Anglia NHS Foundation Trust, Peterborough, UK

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Manjula Samyraju Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Peterborough City Hospital, North West Anglia NHS Foundation Trust, Peterborough, UK

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Katarzyna Gajewska-Knapik Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Soo-Mi Park East Anglian Medical Genetics Service, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK

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Diana Wood Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Carla Moran Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Ruth T Casey Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK

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Summary

Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is characterised by the overproduction of parathyroid hormone (PTH) due to parathyroid hyperplasia, adenoma or carcinoma and results in hypercalcaemia and a raised or inappropriately normal PTH. Symptoms of hypercalcaemia occur in 20% of patients and include fatigue, nausea, constipation, depression, renal impairment and cardiac arrythmias. In the most severe cases, uraemia, coma or cardiac arrest can result. Primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy is rare, with a reported incidence of 1%. Maternal and fetal/neonatal complications are estimated to occur in 67 and 80% of untreated cases respectively. Maternal complications include nephrolithiasis, pancreatitis, hyperemesis gravidarum, pre-eclampsia and hypercalcemic crises. Fetal complications include intrauterine growth restriction; preterm delivery and a three to five-fold increased risk of miscarriage. There is a direct relationship between the degree of severity of hypercalcaemia and miscarriage risk, with miscarriage being more common in those patients with a serum calcium greater than 2.85 mmol/L. Neonatal complications include hypocalcemia. Herein, we present a case series of three women who were diagnosed with primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy. Case 1 was diagnosed with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) in pregnancy and required a bilateral neck exploration and subtotal parathyroidectomy in the second trimester of her pregnancy due to symptomatic severe hypercalcaemia. Both case 2 and case 3 were diagnosed with primary hyperparathyroidism due to a parathyroid adenoma and required a unilateral parathyroidectomy in the second trimester. This case series highlights the work-up and the tailored management approach to patients with primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy.

Learning points:

  • Primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy is associated with a high incidence of associated maternal fetal and neonatal complications directly proportionate to degree of maternal serum calcium levels.

  • Parathyroidectomy is the definitive treatment for primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy and was used in the management of all three cases in this series. It is recommended when serum calcium is persistently greater than 2.75 mmol/L and or for the management of maternal or fetal complications of hypercalcaemia. Surgical management, when necessary is ideally performed in the second trimester.

  • Primary hyperparathyroidism is genetically determined in ~10% of cases, where the likelihood is increased in those under 40 years, where there is relevant family history and those with other related endocrinopathies. Genetic testing is a useful diagnostic adjunct and can guide treatment and management options for patients diagnosed with primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy, as described in case 1 in this series, who was diagnosed with MEN1 syndrome.

  • Women of reproductive age with primary hyperparathyroidism need to be informed of the risks and complications associated with primary hyperparathyroidism in pregnancy and pregnancy should be deferred and or avoided until curative surgery has been performed and calcium levels have normalised.

Open access
Peter Novodvorsky Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK
Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

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Ziad Hussein Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

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Muhammad Fahad Arshad Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

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Ahmed Iqbal Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

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Malee Fernando Department of Histopathology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

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Alia Munir Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK
Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

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Sabapathy P Balasubramanian Department of Oncology and Metabolism, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Department of General Surgery, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK

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Summary

Spontaneous remission of primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) due to necrosis and haemorrhage of parathyroid adenoma, the so-called ‘parathyroid auto-infarction’ is a very rare, but previously described phenomenon. Patients usually undergo parathyroidectomy or remain under close clinical and biochemical surveillance. We report two cases of parathyroid auto-infarction diagnosed in the same tertiary centre; one managed surgically and the other conservatively up to the present time. Case #1 was a 51-year old man with PHPT (adjusted (adj.) calcium: 3.11 mmol/L (reference range (RR): 2.20–2.60 mmol/L), parathyroid hormone (PTH) 26.9 pmol/L (RR: 1.6–6.9 pmol/L) and urine calcium excretion consistent with PHPT) referred for parathyroidectomy. Repeat biochemistry 4 weeks later at the surgical clinic showed normal adj. calcium (2.43 mmol/L) and reduced PTH. Serial ultrasound imaging demonstrated reduction in size of the parathyroid lesion from 33 to 17 mm. Twenty months later, following recurrence of hypercalcaemia, he underwent neck exploration and resection of an enlarged right inferior parathyroid gland. Histology revealed increased fibrosis and haemosiderin deposits in the parathyroid lesion in keeping with auto-infarction. Case #2 was a 54-year-old lady admitted with severe hypercalcaemia (adj. calcium: 4.58 mmol/L, PTH 51.6 pmol/L (RR: 1.6–6.9 pmol/L)) and severe vitamin D deficiency. She was treated with intravenous fluids and pamidronate and 8 days later developed symptomatic hypocalcaemia (1.88 mmol/L) with dramatic decrease of PTH (17.6 pmol/L). MRI of the neck showed a 44 mm large cystic parathyroid lesion. To date, (18 months later), she has remained normocalcaemic.

Learning points:

  • Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is characterised by excess parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion arising mostly from one or more autonomously functioning parathyroid adenomas (up to 85%), diffuse parathyroid hyperplasia (<15%) and in 1–2% of cases from parathyroid carcinoma.

  • PHPT and hypercalcaemia of malignancy, account for the majority of clinical presentations of hypercalcaemia.

  • Spontaneous remission of PHPT due to necrosis, haemorrhage and infarction of parathyroid adenoma, the so-called ‘parathyroid auto-infarction’, ‘auto-parathyroidectomy’ or ‘parathyroid apoplexy’ is a very rare in clinical practice but has been previously reported in the literature.

  • In most cases, patients with parathyroid auto-infarction undergo parathyroidectomy. Those who are managed conservatively need to remain under close clinical and biochemical surveillance long-term as in most cases PHPT recurs, sometimes several years after auto-infarction.

Open access