Clinical Overview > Topic
Search for other papers by Priya Vaidyanathan in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Paul Kaplowitz in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
Pubertal gynecomastia is common, can be seen in 65% of the adolescent boys and is considered physiological. It is thought to be due to transient imbalance between the ratio of testosterone and estradiol in the early stages of puberty. It resolves in 1–2 years and requires no treatment. However, more persistent and severe pubertal gynecomastia is less common and can be associated with pathological disorders. These can be due to diminished androgen production, increased estrogen production or androgen resistance. We report a case of persistent pubertal gynecomastia due to partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS), classical hormone findings and a novel mutation in the androgen receptor (AR) gene.
Learning points:
-
Laboratory testing of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), leutinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone for pubertal gynecomastia is most helpful in the setting of undervirization.
-
The hormonal finding of very high testosterone, elevated LH and estradiol and relatively normal FSH are classical findings of PAIS.
-
Gynecomastia due to PAIS will not resolve and surgery for breast reduction should be recommended.
Department of Endocrinology, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Benjamin Kwan in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Department of Clinical Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Bernard Champion in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Department of Endocrinology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Steven Boyages in
Google Scholar
PubMed
The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Craig F Munns in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Roderick Clifton-Bligh in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Kolling Institute, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Catherine Luxford in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Department of Endocrinology, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Bronwyn Crawford in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
Autosomal dominant hypocalcaemia type 1 (ADH1) is a rare familial disorder characterised by low serum calcium and low or inappropriately normal serum PTH. It is caused by activating CASR mutations, which produces a left-shift in the set point for extracellular calcium. We describe an Australian family with a novel heterozygous missense mutation in CASR causing ADH1. Mild neuromuscular symptoms (paraesthesia, carpopedal spasm) were present in most affected individuals and required treatment with calcium and calcitriol. Basal ganglia calcification was present in three out of four affected family members. This case highlights the importance of correctly identifying genetic causes of hypocalcaemia to allow for proper management and screening of family members.
Learning points:
-
ADH1 is a rare cause of hypoparathyroidism due to activating CASR mutations and is the mirror image of familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia.
-
In patients with ADH1, symptoms of hypocalcaemia may be mild or absent. Basal ganglia calcification may be present in over a third of patients.
-
CASR mutation analysis is required for diagnostic confirmation and to facilitate proper management, screening and genetic counselling of affected family members.
-
Treatment with calcium and activated vitamin D analogues should be reserved for symptomatic individuals due to the risk of exacerbating hypercalciuria and its associated complications.
Search for other papers by C E Stiles in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by R Thuraisingham in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by D Bockenhauer in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by L Platts in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by A V Kumar in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by M Korbonits in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
29-year-old female presenting with an 8-year history of unexplained hypomagnesaemia, which was severe enough to warrant intermittent inpatient admission for intravenous magnesium. Urinary magnesium was inappropriately normal in the context of hypomagnesaemia indicating magnesium wasting. Ultrasound imaging demonstrated unilateral renal cysts and computed tomography of kidneys, ureters and bladder showed a bicornuate uterus. Referral to genetic services and subsequent testing revealed a de novo HNF1B deletion.
Learning points:
-
HNF1B loss-of-function mutations are one of the most common monogenic causes of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract.
-
Those with HNF1B mutations may have some of a constellation of features (renal and hepatic cysts, deranged liver function tests, maturity onset diabetes of the young type 5 (MODY5), bicornuate uterus, hyperparathyroidism, hyperuricaemic gout, but presenting features are highly heterogeneous amongst patients and no genotype/phenotype correlation exists.
-
HNF1B mutations are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern but up to 50% of cases are de novo.
-
HNF1B mutations can be part of the Chr17q12 deletion syndrome, a contiguous gene deletion syndrome.
-
Inorganic oral magnesium replacements are generally poorly tolerated with side effects of diarrhoea. Organic magnesium compounds, such as magnesium aspartate, are better absorbed oral replacement therapies.
Fundación de Investigación HM Hospitales, Madrid, Spain
Search for other papers by I Castilla-Cortazar in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by J R De Ita in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by G A Aguirre in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by M García–Magariño in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by I Martín-Estal in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by V J Lara-Diaz in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by M I Elizondo in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
Herein, we present a 14-year-old patient with short stature (134 cm) referred from Paediatrics to our department for complementary evaluation since growth hormone (GH) treatment failed to show any improvement. He was born premature and small for gestational age. Genital examination classified the patient as Tanner I–II with small penis and testicular size for his age. Biochemical analyses revealed normal GH levels with low serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). Molecular diagnosis confirmed several mutations in IGF1R and IGFALS, and so he was diagnosed with Laron Syndrome or GH insensibility and treated with IGF-1 substitutive therapy.
Learning points:
-
Evaluation of the GH/IGF-1 axis when short stature does not respond to conservative treatment must be included in the ordinary practice.
-
Laron Syndrome real incidence should be calculated once undiagnosed cases arise, as treatment, due to lack of market, is unaffordable.
-
Even when adulthood is reached, and no longitudinal growth can be achieved, still IGF-1 treatment in Laron Syndrome patients should be pursued as metabolic and protective derangements could arise.
ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Nandini Shankara Narayana in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Anne-Maree Kean in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Central Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Search for other papers by Lisa Ewans in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Thomas Ohnesorg in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Search for other papers by Katie L Ayers in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Geoff Watson in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Arthur Vasilaras in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Search for other papers by Andrew H Sinclair in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Stephen M Twigg in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by David J Handelsman in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
46,XX disorders of sexual development (DSDs) occur rarely and result from disruptions of the genetic pathways underlying gonadal development and differentiation. We present a case of a young phenotypic male with 46,XX SRY-negative ovotesticular DSD resulting from a duplication upstream of SOX9 presenting with a painful testicular mass resulting from ovulation into an ovotestis. We present a literature review of ovulation in phenotypic men and discuss the role of SRY and SOX9 in testicular development, including the role of SOX9 upstream enhancer region duplication in female-to-male sex reversal.
Learning points:
-
In mammals, the early gonad is bipotent and can differentiate into either a testis or an ovary. SRY is the master switch in testis determination, responsible for differentiation of the bipotent gonad into testis.
-
SRY activates SOX9 gene, SOX9 as a transcription factor is the second major gene involved in male sex determination. SOX9 drives the proliferation of Sertoli cells and activates AMH/MIS repressing the ovary. SOX9 is sufficient to induce testis formation and can substitute for SRY function.
-
Assessing karyotype and then determination of the presence or absence of Mullerian structures are necessary serial investigations in any case of DSD, except for mixed gonadal dysgenesis identified by karyotype alone.
-
Treatment is ideal in a multidisciplinary setting with considerations to genetic (implications to family and reproductive recurrence risk), psychological aspects (sensitive individualized counseling including patient gender identity and preference), endocrinological (hormone replacement), surgical (cosmetic, prophylactic gonadectomy) fertility preservation and reproductive opportunities and metabolic health (cardiovascular and bones).
Search for other papers by Durgesh Prasad Chaudhary in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Tshristi Rijal in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Kunal Kishor Jha in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Harpreet Saluja in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
Combined pituitary hormonal deficiency (CPHD) is a rare disease that results from mutations in genes coding for transcription factors that regulate the differentiation of pituitary cells. PROP1 gene mutations are one of the etiological diagnoses of congenital panhypopituitarism, however symptoms vary depending on phenotypic expression. We present a case of psychosis in a 36-year-old female with congenital panhypopituitarism who presented with paranoia, flat affect and ideas of reference without a delirious mental state, which resolved with hormone replacement and antipsychotics. Further evaluation revealed that she had a homozygous mutation of PROP1 gene. In summary, compliance with hormonal therapy for patients with hypopituitarism appears to be effective for the prevention and treatment of acute psychosis symptoms.
Learning points:
-
Patients with PROP1 gene mutation may present with psychosis with no impairment in orientation and memory.
-
There is currently inadequate literature on this topic, and further study on the possible mechanisms of psychosis as a result of endocrine disturbance is required.
-
Compliance with hormonal therapy for patients with hypopituitarism appears to be effective for prevention and treatment of acute psychosis symptoms.
Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Search for other papers by Anil Piya in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Anderson Cancer Institute, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Search for other papers by Jasmeet Kaur in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Augusta University School of Medicine, Augusta, Georgia, USA
Search for other papers by Alan M Rice in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Anderson Cancer Institute, Memorial University Medical Center, Savannah, Georgia, USA
Search for other papers by Himangshu S Bose in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
Cholesterol transport into the mitochondria is required for synthesis of the first steroid, pregnenolone. Cholesterol is transported by the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), which acts at the outer mitochondrial membrane prior to its import. Mutations in the STAR protein result in lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Although the STAR protein consists of seven exons, biochemical analysis in nonsteroidogenic COS-1 cells showed that the first two were not essential for pregnenolone synthesis. Here, we present a patient with ambiguous genitalia, salt-lossing crisis within two weeks after birth and low cortisol levels. Sequence analysis of the STAR, including the exon–intron boundaries, showed the complete deletion of exon 1 as well as more than 50 nucleotides upstream of STAR promoter. Mitochondrial protein import with the translated protein through synthesis cassette of the mutant STAR lacking exon 1 showed protein translation, but it is less likely to have synthesized without a promoter in our patient. Thus, a full-length STAR gene is necessary for physiological mitochondrial cholesterol transport in vivo.
Learning points:
-
STAR exon 1 deletion caused lipoid CAH.
-
Exon 1 substitution does not affect biochemical activity.
-
StAR promoter is responsible for gonadal development.
Concord Clinical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2139, Australia
Search for other papers by Avinash Suryawanshi in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Concord Clinical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2139, Australia
Search for other papers by Timothy Middleton in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Concord Clinical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2139, Australia
Search for other papers by Kirtan Ganda in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD) is a rare genetic condition caused by mutations in the ABCD1 gene that result in accumulation of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) in various tissues. This leads to demyelination in the CNS and impaired steroidogenesis in the adrenal cortex and testes. A 57-year-old gentleman was referred for the assessment of bilateral gynaecomastia of 6 months duration. He had skin hyperpigmentation since 4 years of age and spastic paraparesis for the past 15 years. Physical examination findings included generalised hyperpigmentation (including skin, buccal mucosa and palmar creases), blood pressure of 90/60 mmHg, non-tender gynaecomastia and bilateral hypoplastic testes. Lower limb findings were those of a profoundly ataxic gait associated with significant paraparesis and sensory loss. Primary adrenal insufficiency was confirmed and investigations for gynaecomastia revealed normal testosterone with mildly elevated luteinising hormone level and normal prolactin. The combination of primary adrenal insufficiency (likely childhood onset), partial testicular failure (leading to gynaecomastia) and spastic paraparesis suggested X-ALD as a unifying diagnosis. A serum VLCFA panel was consistent with X-ALD. Subsequent genetic testing confirmed the diagnosis. Treatment with replacement doses of corticosteroid resulted in improvement in blood pressure and increased energy levels. We have reported the case of a 57-year-old man with a very late diagnosis of X-ALD manifested by childhood onset of primary adrenal insufficiency followed by paraparesis and primary hypogonadism in adulthood. Thus, X-ALD should be considered as a possibility in a patient with non-autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency and neurological abnormalities.
Learning points
-
Adult patients with X-ALD may be misdiagnosed as having multiple sclerosis or idiopathic spastic paraparesis for many years before the correct diagnosis is identified.
-
Screening for X-ALD with a VLCFA panel should be strongly considered in male children with primary adrenal insufficiency and in male adults presenting with non-autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency.
-
Confirmation of a genetic diagnosis of X-ALD can be very useful for a patient's family as genetic testing enables detection of pre-symptomatic female heterozygotes who can then be offered pre-natal testing to avoid transmission of the disease to male offsprings.
Search for other papers by Suresh Chandran in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Fabian Yap Kok Peng in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Victor Samuel Rajadurai in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Yap Te Lu in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Kenneth T E Chang in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by S E Flanagan in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by S Ellard in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Khalid Hussain in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
background: Congenital hyperinsulinism (CHI) is a rare genetic disorder characterised by inappropriate insulin secretion in the face of severe hypoglycaemia. There are two histological subtypes of CHI namely diffuse and focal. Diffuse CHI is most common due to recessive mutations in ABCC8/KCNJ11 (which encode the SUR/KIR6.2 components of the pancreatic β-cell KATP channel) whereas focal CHI is due to a paternally inherited ABCC8/KCNJ11 mutation and somatic loss of heterozygosity for the 11p allele inside the focal lesion. Fluorine-18-l-dihydroxyphenylalanine positron emission tomography/computed tomography (18F-DOPA-PET/CT) is used in the pre-operative localisation of focal lesions prior to surgery. Diffuse CHI if medically unresponsive will require a near total pancreatectomy whereas focal CHI will only require a limited lesionectomy, thus curing the patient from the hypoglycaemia.
Aims: To report the first case of genetically confirmed CHI in Singapore from a heterozygous paternally inherited ABCC8 mutation.
Methods/Results: A term male infant presented with severe hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia (HH) after birth and failed medical treatment with diazoxide and octreotide. Genetic testing (paternally inherited mutation in ABCC8/p.D1472N) suggested focal disease, but due to the unavailability of 18F-DOPA-PET/CT to confirm focal disease, a partial pancreatectomy was performed. Interestingly, histology of the resected pancreatic tissue showed changes typical of diffuse disease.
Conclusion: Heterozygous paternally inherited ABCC8/KCNJ11 mutations can lead to diffuse or focal CHI.
Learning points
-
HH is a cause of severe hypoglycaemia in the newborn period.
-
Paternal mutations in ABCC8/KCNJ11 can lead to diffuse or focal disease.
-
18F-DOPA-PET/CT scan is the current imaging of choice for localising focal lesions.
-
Gallium-68 tetra-aza-cyclododecane-N N′N″N-‴-tetra-acetate octreotate PET scan is not a useful imaging tool for localising focal lesions.
-
The molecular mechanism by which a heterozygous ABCC8 mutation leads to diffuse disease is currently unclear.
-
Focal lesions are curable by lesionectomy and so genetic studies in patients with HH must be followed by imaging using 18F-DOPA-PET/CT scan.
Search for other papers by Ramesh Srinivasan in
Google Scholar
PubMed
The Medical School, Newcastle University, Newcastle NE24HH, UK
Search for other papers by Stephen Ball in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Martin Ward-Platt in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by David Bourn in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Ciaron McAnulty in
Google Scholar
PubMed
The Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Central Parkway, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
Search for other papers by Tim Cheetham in
Google Scholar
PubMed
Summary
Aim: Differentiating familial cranial diabetes insipidus (CDI) from primary polydipsia can be difficult. We report the diagnostic utility of genetic testing as a means of confirming or excluding this diagnosis.
Patient and methods: The index case presented at 3 months with polydipsia. He was diagnosed with familial CDI based on a positive family history combined with what was considered to be suspicious symptomatology and biochemistry. He was treated with desmopressin (DDAVP) but re-presented at 5 months of age with hyponatraemia and the DDAVP was stopped. Gene sequencing of the vasopressin gene in father and his offspring was undertaken to establish the underlying molecular defect.
Results: Both father and daughter were found to have the pathogenic mutation c.242T>C (p.Leu81Pro) in exon 2 of the AVP gene consistent with a diagnosis of familial diabetes insipidus. The index case did not have the pathogenic mutation and the family could be reassured that he would not require intervention with DDAVP.
Conclusions: Gene sequencing of AVP gene can have a valuable role in predicting whether or not a child is at risk of developing CDI in future. This can help to prevent family uncertainty and unnecessary treatment with its associated risks.
Learning points
-
Differentiating patients with familial cranial diabetes insipidus from those with primary polydipsia is not always straightforward.
-
Molecular genetic analysis of the vasopressin gene is a valuable way of confirming or refuting a diagnosis of familial CDI in difficult cases and is a valuable way of identifying individuals who will develop CDI in later childhood. This information can be of great value to families.
