Cardiac tamponade in a patient with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 2

in Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Case Reports
Authors:
Andromachi Vryonidou Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Hellenic Red Cross Hospital, Athens, Greece

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Stavroula A Paschou Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Hellenic Red Cross Hospital, Athens, Greece

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Fotini Dimitropoulou Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Hellenic Red Cross Hospital, Athens, Greece

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Panagiotis Anagnostis Unit of Reproductive Endocrinology, First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

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Vasiliki Tzavara 3rd Department of Internal Medicine, Hellenic Red Cross Hospital, Athens, Greece

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Apostolos Katsivas 1st Department of Cardiology, Hellenic Red Cross Hospital, Athens, Greece

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Summary

We describe a case of a 40-year-old woman who was admitted to the intensive care unit with a rapid onset of dyspnea and orthopnea. She presented progressive weakness, weight loss and secondary amenorrhea during last year, while intermittent fever was present for the last two months. Initial biochemical evaluation showed anemia, hyponatremia and increased C-reactive protein levels. Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation revealed cardiac tamponade, which was treated with pericardiocentesis. Pleural fluid samples were negative for malignancy, tuberculosis or bacterial infection. Hormonal and serologic evaluation led to the diagnosis of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS) type 2 (including primary adrenal insufficiency and autoimmune thyroiditis), possibly coexisting with systemic lupus erythematosus. After symptomatic rheumatologic treatment followed by replacement therapy with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone, the patient fully recovered. In patients with the combination of polyserositis, cardiac tamponade and persistent hyponatremia, possible coexistence of rheumatologic and autoimmune endocrine disease, mainly adrenal insufficiency, should be considered. Early diagnosis and non-invasive treatment can be life-saving.

Learning points:

  • In patients with the combination of polyserositis, cardiac tamponade and persistent hyponatremia, possible coexistence of rheumatologic and autoimmune endocrine disease, mainly adrenal insufficiency, should be considered.

  • Early diagnosis and non-invasive treatment can be life-saving for these patients.

  • Primary adrenal insufficiency requires lifelong replacement therapy with oral administration of 15–25 mg hydrocortisone in split doses and 50–200 µg fludrocortisone once daily.

Summary

We describe a case of a 40-year-old woman who was admitted to the intensive care unit with a rapid onset of dyspnea and orthopnea. She presented progressive weakness, weight loss and secondary amenorrhea during last year, while intermittent fever was present for the last two months. Initial biochemical evaluation showed anemia, hyponatremia and increased C-reactive protein levels. Clinical and echocardiographic evaluation revealed cardiac tamponade, which was treated with pericardiocentesis. Pleural fluid samples were negative for malignancy, tuberculosis or bacterial infection. Hormonal and serologic evaluation led to the diagnosis of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS) type 2 (including primary adrenal insufficiency and autoimmune thyroiditis), possibly coexisting with systemic lupus erythematosus. After symptomatic rheumatologic treatment followed by replacement therapy with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone, the patient fully recovered. In patients with the combination of polyserositis, cardiac tamponade and persistent hyponatremia, possible coexistence of rheumatologic and autoimmune endocrine disease, mainly adrenal insufficiency, should be considered. Early diagnosis and non-invasive treatment can be life-saving.

Learning points:

  • In patients with the combination of polyserositis, cardiac tamponade and persistent hyponatremia, possible coexistence of rheumatologic and autoimmune endocrine disease, mainly adrenal insufficiency, should be considered.

  • Early diagnosis and non-invasive treatment can be life-saving for these patients.

  • Primary adrenal insufficiency requires lifelong replacement therapy with oral administration of 15–25 mg hydrocortisone in split doses and 50–200 µg fludrocortisone once daily.

Background

Physicians should be aware of the clinical relationship between cardiac tamponade and adrenal insufficiency, as early diagnosis and non-invasive treatment can be life-saving for these patients.

Case presentation

A 40 -year-old woman was admitted to the intensive care unit of our hospital with a rapid onset of dyspnea and orthopnea. She presented progressive weakness, weight loss (~10 kg) and secondary amenorrhea during last year, while intermittent fever was present for the last two months. No other clinical rheumatologic criteria were present at this time. Autoimmune Hashimoto thyroiditis was diagnosed five years earlier and she was on replacement therapy with levothyroxine.

On physical examination, she was febrile, tachycardic, hypotensive and slightly hyperpigmented. Initial biochemical evaluation showed anemia (Hemoglobin: 11.3 mg/dL), hyponatremia (Sodium: 131 mEq/L) and increased C-reactive protein levels (CRP: 26.4 mg/L). Echocardiography revealed significant quantity of pericardial fluid (Fig. 1), and cardiac tamponade was diagnosed and treated with pericardiocentesis (performed with pig tail). Pleural fluid samples were sent for investigation and proved to be negative for malignancy or tuberculosis or bacterial infection. Pleural effusions were managed with repeated punctures and placement of discharge drainage pipes.

Figure 1
Figure 1

Echocardiography revealing significant quantity of pericardial fluid.

Citation: Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Case Reports 2017, 1; 10.1530/EDM-17-0097

Investigation

At initial serologic evaluation for polyserositis, apart for low levels of C4 (9 ng/dL (normal range: 16–44)), all other results were negative (extractable nuclear antigens (ENA) autoantibodies, Sjögren’s-syndrome-related antigen A and B autoantibodies, antinuclear autoantibodies, Cardiolipin autoantibodies, ribonucleoprotein (RNP) autoantibodies, double-stranded DNA autoantibodies, smooth muscle autoantibodies, beta 2 glycoprotein 1 autoantibodies). The patient continued to present intermittent fever, persistent but improving pleural effusion and persistent hyponatremia.

Hormonal evaluation showed a low morning cortisol with high adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels (Cortisol: 3.5 μg/dL, ACTH: >1400 pg/mL). Primary adrenal insufficiency was then diagnosed. Adrenal computed tomography (CT) was performed (Fig. 2) without any specific findings. Adrenal autoantibodies were positive and the diagnosis of autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency was set. Because of the presence of autoimmune Hashimoto’s thyroiditis too, the diagnosis was autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS) type 2. Parietal cell autoantibodies were also positive, while ovarian autoantibodies were negative.

Figure 2
Figure 2

Adrenal CT.

Citation: Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism Case Reports 2017, 1; 10.1530/EDM-17-0097

A second serologic evaluation revealed positive ENA autoantibodies, assessed with the method of immunoblot. On clinical rheumatologic assessment malar rash, arthritis and polyserotisis were present and the diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) was set.

Treatment

The patient initially received three consecutive pulses with 1 g methylprednisolone switching to orally 32 mg/day. Methotrexate (10 mg/week) and hydroxychloroquine at a dose of 400 mg/day were also added. In one month, tapering of methylprednisolone was started. Patient was doing well, but when she was on 8 mg of methylprednisolone, she presented arthritis of the wrists (metacarpophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal), so methotrexate was increased to a dose of 17.5 mg/week, with gradually complete remission of arthritis. Additionally, isoniazid was administered preventively for 3 months because of a positive Mantoux.

Outcome and follow-up

After three months, the patient had complete remission of symptoms with return of menstruation. Because of regression of polyserositis, methylprednisolone was replaced with hydrocortisone at a replacement dose of 15 mg in the morning and 5 mg in the afternoon for adrenal insufficiency. Fludrocortisone in a dose of 100 µg per day was also given.

Discussion

This is a very interesting case with coexistence of APS type 2 and SLE, leading to polyserositis and cardiac tamponade.

APS is an infrequent disorder characterized by the presence of a cluster of autoimmune endocrine as well as non-endocrine abnormalities. APS 1 is a rare monogenic disorder resulting from mutations of autoimmune regulator gene. It usually develops in infancy and consists of muco-cutaneous candidiasis along with hypoparathyroidism or Addison’s disease (1). APS 2 is a complex polygenic disorder in association with the Human Leucocyte Antigen system class II alleles. It manifests during adulthood and it is more frequent in women. Addison’s disease is the prevailing and stable component, in combination with autoimmune thyroid disease or diabetes mellitus type 1 (2, 3). The prevalence of autoimmune Addison’s disease is estimated to be 90–140 per million and 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies are detected in 80–90% of the patients (4, 5). Other autoimmune diseases, such as gonadal failure, celiac disease, vitiligo, alopecia, pernicious anemia, myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid arthritis, thrombocytopenia purpura, Sjögren syndrome and serositis, may manifest but less frequently. Each of the APS 2 components can develop apart, from years to decades and this underpins the necessity for lifelong follow-up, as early detection can anticipate serious life-threating events (4, 5, 6).

SLE is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects mainly women, with a prevalence of 20–150 cases per 100 000 persons. Loss of self-tolerance results in immune complexes and antibodies production that injure multiple organs including kidneys, lungs, heart, brain, skin, joints and serous membrane (7). The disease is characterized by significant heterogeneity in clinical presentation and thus certain clinical and biochemical criteria have been instituted for diagnosis. Various criteria are needed for formal diagnosis, including malar or discoid rush, photosensitivity, oral ulcers, arthritis, serositis and kidney, blood, neurologic or immunologic disorders. Clinical course can be variable with long periods of remission and acute or chronic relapse (7, 8). Mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD) could also be part of the differential diagnosis. MCTD is known to cause effusions and tamponade (9) and it is an overlap syndrome associated with ENA antibodies that incorporates selected clinical features of SLE, systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) and polymyositis.

The cause of hyponatremia in this patient was primary adrenal insufficiency. Long-standing, persistent hyponatremia associated with weight loss, fatigue and hyperpigmentation should always raise the suspicion of primary adrenal insufficiency. Cortisol deficiency results in increased hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone secretion with consequent elevated vasopressin levels, free water retention, a shift of extracellular sodium into cells and decreased delivery of filtrate to the diluting segments of the nephrons due to decreased glomerular filtration rate. Mineralocorticoid deficiency increases angiotensin II levels and free water retention with parallel sodium loss in urine. Hyponatremia is present in 80–90% of the cases with primary adrenal insufficiency, while hyperkalemia is present in less than 50% of them. It should be noted that hyperkalemia does not develop in secondary adrenal insufficiency because the adrenal zona glomerulosa remains responsive to the renin angiotensin system and aldosterone secretion is intact (4).

Acute pericardial effusion is mainly idiopathic in developed countries, with no identification of any specific cause and presumed to be of viral origin. In 10–20% of the cases, it is associated with autoimmune connective tissue systemic diseases (mostly SLE), or infectious, neoplastic and traumatic situations (10). Pericarditis is a well-recognized feature of SLE with a prevalence of 12–48% (11, 12). It is more common in children than adults with SLE and has a tendency for relapse during disease flares. It may be asymptomatic or clinically significant due to large pericardial effusion. Echocardiography confirms that the diagnosis and fluid removal by pericardiocentesis and corticosteroid administration are needed for management (13). In rare cases, cardiac tamponade occurs and sometimes it can be the presenting symptom (14), while low C4 levels have been found to be predictive of this life-threating situation in adult patients (15). Likewise, relapsing serositis with pericardial and/or pleural involvement was documented in a series of twenty patients with APS 2 (16). Furthermore, pericarditis with cardiac tamponade and concurrent Addisonian crisis has also been reported in the literature. In ten cases that have been described till now, most of the patients despite compliance to replacement therapy, have experienced recurrent pericarditis and/or pleuritis during follow-up (16, 17, 18, 19). The underlying mechanism for pericardial effusion is possibly the autoimmune inflammation of the pericardium which leads to acute inflammatory reaction and fluid accumulation (20). In accordance, immune complexes and antibodies were found after fluid sample evaluation (10). Pericardial fluid accumulation can result in increased pericardial pressure, compression of cardiac chambers and cardiac tamponade. In Addison’s disease, the existing hypovolemia as a result of aldosterone insufficiency constitutes an aggravating factor as it significantly reduces the filling pressure of the right ventricle.

Regarding the therapeutic approach, lifelong replacement therapy with hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone is recommended. Primary adrenal insufficiency requires lifelong replacement therapy with oral administration of 15–25 mg hydrocortisone in split doses and 50–200 µg fludrocortisone once daily (21). Treatment of the coexisting rheumatologic conditions should be individualized.

Declaration of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sector.

Patient consent

Written informed consent has been obtained from the patient for publication of the article and accompanying images.

Author contribution statement

A V, S A P, F P, V T and A K took care of the patient. A V, S A P and P A wrote the article.

References

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    Michels A & Gottlieb P 2010 Autoimmune polyglandural syndromes. Nature Reviews Endocrinology 6 270277. (doi:10.1038/nrendo.2010.40)

  • 2

    Dittmar M & Kahaly GJ 2003 Polyglandular autoimmune syndromes: immunogenetics and long-term follow-up. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 88 29832992. (doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021845)

    • PubMed
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    • Export Citation
  • 3

    Eisenbarth GS & Gottlieb PA 2004 Autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes. New England Journal of Medicine 350 20682079. (doi:10.1056/NEJMra030158)

  • 4

    Arlt W 2009 The approach to the adult with newly diagnosed adrenal insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 94 10591067. (doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0032)

    • PubMed
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    • Export Citation
  • 5

    Erichsen MM, Løvas K, Skinningsrud B, Wolff AB, Undlien DE, Svartberg J, Fougner KJ, Berg TJ, Bollerslev J & Mella B et al. 2009 Clinical, immunological, and genetic features of autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency: observations from a Norwegian registry. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 94 48824890. (doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1368)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 6

    Betterle C, Lazzarotto F & Presotto F 2004 Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome Type 2: the tip of an iceberg? Clinical and Experimental Immunology 137 225233. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02561.x)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7

    Tsokos G 2011 Systemic lupus erythematosus. New England Journal of Medicine 365 21102121. (doi:10.1056/NEJMra1100359)

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    Petri M, Orbai AM, Alarcón GS, Gordon C, Merrill JT, Fortin PR, Bruce IN, Isenberg D, Wallace DJ & Nived O et al. 2012 Derivation and validation of the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism 64 2677. (doi:10.1002/art.34473)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9

    Arroyo-Ávila M & Vilá LM 2015 Cardiac tamponade in a patient with mixed connective tissue disease. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology 21 4245.

  • 10

    LeWinter MM 2014 Acute pericarditis. New England Journal of Medicine 371 24102416. (doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1404070)

  • 11

    Moder KG, Miller TD & Tazelaar HD 1999 Cardiac involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 74 275284. (doi:10.4065/74.3.275)

  • 12

    Roman M & Salmon J 2007 Cardiovascular manifestations of rheumatologic diseases. Circulation 116 23462355. (doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678334)

  • 13

    Maharaj SS & Chang SM 2015 Cardiac tamponade as the initial presentation of systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report and review of the literature. Pediatric Rheumatology Online Journal 13 9. (doi:10.1186/s12969-015-0005-0)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 14

    Imazio M, Gaita F & LeWinter M 2015 Evaluation and treatment of pericarditis: a systematic review. JAMA 314 14981506. (doi:10.1001/jama.2015.12763)

  • 15

    Rosenbaum E, Krebs E, Cohen M, Tiliakos A & Derk CT 2009 The spectrum of clinical manifestations, outcome and treatment of pericardial tamponade in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a retrospective study and literature review. Lupus 18 608612. (doi:10.1177/0961203308100659)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 16

    Tucker WS, Niblack GD, McLean RH, Alspaugh MA, Wyatt RJ, Jordan SC, Bright GM & Pincus T 1987 Serositis with autoimmune endocrinopathy: clinical and immunogenetic features. Medicine 66 138147. (doi:10.1097/00005792-198703000-00005)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17

    Alkaabi J, Chik C & Lewanczuk R 2008 Pericarditis with cardiac tamponade and addisonian crisis as the presenting features of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type II: a case series. Endocrine Practices 14 474478. (doi:10.4158/EP.14.4.474)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 18

    Algün E, Erkoç R, Kotan C, Güler N, Sahin I, Ayakta H, Uygan I, Dilek I & Aksoy H 2001 Polyserositis as a rare component of polyglandular autoimmune syndrome type II. International Journal of Clinical Practice 55 280281.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 19

    Palmer WC, Kurklinsky A, Lane G, Ussavarungsi K & Blackshear JL 2014 Cardiac tamponade due to low-volume effusive constrictive pericarditis in a patient with uncontrolled type II autoimmune polyglandular syndrome. Acute Cardiovascular Care 16 2327. (doi:10.3109/17482941.2013.869344)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 20

    Al-Mutairy M & Malaviya AN 2001 Systemic lupus erythematosus with polyglandular autoimmune syndrome type II: report of an unusual case. Lupus 10 445447. (doi:10.1191/096120301678646209)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21

    Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, Barthel A, Don-Wauchope A, Hammer GD, Husebye ES, Merke DP, Murad MH & Stratakis CA et al. 2016 Diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 101 364389. (doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1710)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

 

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  • Expand
  • 1

    Michels A & Gottlieb P 2010 Autoimmune polyglandural syndromes. Nature Reviews Endocrinology 6 270277. (doi:10.1038/nrendo.2010.40)

  • 2

    Dittmar M & Kahaly GJ 2003 Polyglandular autoimmune syndromes: immunogenetics and long-term follow-up. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 88 29832992. (doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021845)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 3

    Eisenbarth GS & Gottlieb PA 2004 Autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes. New England Journal of Medicine 350 20682079. (doi:10.1056/NEJMra030158)

  • 4

    Arlt W 2009 The approach to the adult with newly diagnosed adrenal insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 94 10591067. (doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0032)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5

    Erichsen MM, Løvas K, Skinningsrud B, Wolff AB, Undlien DE, Svartberg J, Fougner KJ, Berg TJ, Bollerslev J & Mella B et al. 2009 Clinical, immunological, and genetic features of autoimmune primary adrenal insufficiency: observations from a Norwegian registry. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 94 48824890. (doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1368)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 6

    Betterle C, Lazzarotto F & Presotto F 2004 Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome Type 2: the tip of an iceberg? Clinical and Experimental Immunology 137 225233. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02561.x)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7

    Tsokos G 2011 Systemic lupus erythematosus. New England Journal of Medicine 365 21102121. (doi:10.1056/NEJMra1100359)

  • 8

    Petri M, Orbai AM, Alarcón GS, Gordon C, Merrill JT, Fortin PR, Bruce IN, Isenberg D, Wallace DJ & Nived O et al. 2012 Derivation and validation of the Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis and Rheumatism 64 2677. (doi:10.1002/art.34473)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9

    Arroyo-Ávila M & Vilá LM 2015 Cardiac tamponade in a patient with mixed connective tissue disease. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology 21 4245.

  • 10

    LeWinter MM 2014 Acute pericarditis. New England Journal of Medicine 371 24102416. (doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1404070)

  • 11

    Moder KG, Miller TD & Tazelaar HD 1999 Cardiac involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 74 275284. (doi:10.4065/74.3.275)

  • 12

    Roman M & Salmon J 2007 Cardiovascular manifestations of rheumatologic diseases. Circulation 116 23462355. (doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678334)

  • 13

    Maharaj SS & Chang SM 2015 Cardiac tamponade as the initial presentation of systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report and review of the literature. Pediatric Rheumatology Online Journal 13 9. (doi:10.1186/s12969-015-0005-0)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 14

    Imazio M, Gaita F & LeWinter M 2015 Evaluation and treatment of pericarditis: a systematic review. JAMA 314 14981506. (doi:10.1001/jama.2015.12763)

  • 15

    Rosenbaum E, Krebs E, Cohen M, Tiliakos A & Derk CT 2009 The spectrum of clinical manifestations, outcome and treatment of pericardial tamponade in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a retrospective study and literature review. Lupus 18 608612. (doi:10.1177/0961203308100659)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 16

    Tucker WS, Niblack GD, McLean RH, Alspaugh MA, Wyatt RJ, Jordan SC, Bright GM & Pincus T 1987 Serositis with autoimmune endocrinopathy: clinical and immunogenetic features. Medicine 66 138147. (doi:10.1097/00005792-198703000-00005)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17

    Alkaabi J, Chik C & Lewanczuk R 2008 Pericarditis with cardiac tamponade and addisonian crisis as the presenting features of autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type II: a case series. Endocrine Practices 14 474478. (doi:10.4158/EP.14.4.474)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 18

    Algün E, Erkoç R, Kotan C, Güler N, Sahin I, Ayakta H, Uygan I, Dilek I & Aksoy H 2001 Polyserositis as a rare component of polyglandular autoimmune syndrome type II. International Journal of Clinical Practice 55 280281.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 19

    Palmer WC, Kurklinsky A, Lane G, Ussavarungsi K & Blackshear JL 2014 Cardiac tamponade due to low-volume effusive constrictive pericarditis in a patient with uncontrolled type II autoimmune polyglandular syndrome. Acute Cardiovascular Care 16 2327. (doi:10.3109/17482941.2013.869344)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 20

    Al-Mutairy M & Malaviya AN 2001 Systemic lupus erythematosus with polyglandular autoimmune syndrome type II: report of an unusual case. Lupus 10 445447. (doi:10.1191/096120301678646209)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21

    Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, Barthel A, Don-Wauchope A, Hammer GD, Husebye ES, Merke DP, Murad MH & Stratakis CA et al. 2016 Diagnosis and treatment of primary adrenal insufficiency: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 101 364389. (doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1710)

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation